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玛哈特玛·甘地和毛泽东——对印度和中国具有深远影响的两个人
因为资本主义如此密集地冲击着人们的态度、价值观、习惯——这些文化的东西——所以值得我们从更多方面来比较中国和印度这两个国家。20世纪40年代后期,这两个国家在两位极富魅力的领袖——玛哈特玛·甘地和毛泽东的带领下,向它们尊崇的传统发起了挑战。或许它们对资本主义的反应体现了这两位伟人的影响。1913~1948年,甘地领导了印度脱离英国的独立运动,在印度独立六个月以后,他被印度教的极端分子暗杀了。甘地在伦敦是一名有教养的律师,他从24岁开始,在南非一直待了20年,1893年,南非拥有与印度相当的人口数量。甘地看到有色人种在当地受到的待遇非常愤怒,他发起号召,伸张正义,这样的激情使他几度入狱。他鼓励遭受压迫的人民利用非暴力反抗和消极抵抗的方式团结一致,推翻他们的压迫者。
甘地的梦想不只是让印度获得解放,他还想使印度人摆脱英国人曾一度强加的工业社会带来的、丑陋的嘈杂和摧毁三观的剥削。甘地以苦行者的习惯,唤醒了爱与赞美的善意,还有战胜一切的决心。他的继任者贾瓦哈拉尔·尼赫鲁(Jawaharlal Nehru)顺利建立了印度的现代宪法以及反映了甘地理念的人权保障。虽然宪法认同种姓身份,也认可印度教徒和穆斯林之间的区别,但是它纠正了许多不公平的土地法律,并且提高了妇女地位。甘地基于印度悠久的传统,强调和平抗议的手段,这一立场在他的国家依然表现得非常鲜明。他还培育了印度社会对多样性的包容,这种多样性在20世纪争权夺利的政党身上得到了充分的体现。
毛泽东之所以登上了中国的政治舞台,是因为他抵御了日本侵略,并在与国民党的长期抗战中胜出。中国的内讧始于20世纪20年代末,毛泽东当年才30岁,这场斗争一直持续到1949年新中国成立。毛泽东是一位杰出而冷峻的将领,他深思熟虑,恪守共产主义的承诺,后来还口述了他一路胜利的过程。旧时的中国社会墨守成规,而且在某些方面表现得非常病态,毛泽东针对这个万恶的旧社会策划了一次暴力转变。随着和平曙光的出现,共产党成功根除了卖淫、剥削儿童、妇女缠足和鸦片烟馆等社会陋习。共产党带有一丝集权主义的色彩,他们重新分配了土地,并对“反革命分子”进行了血腥镇压。毛泽东和他的同伴还建立了一个听命于他的政党结构,直到最底层的村落,各级都得听从毛主席的领导。
中国和印度都退出了国际贸易,寻求改善自己国家困窘的方法,它们认为国际贸易是它们贫困的成因,但是这两个国家的寻道之路却极其不同。在甘地谦逊的个人哲学的指导下,独立后的印度开始了公民参与的教育,而中国人民虽然因国家的努力在医疗保健和教育方面得到了许多好处,但是却成了政府控制的对象。如果说甘地非常会鼓舞人心,那么毛泽东就是一位优秀的组织者。这两个国家曾经的殖民身份都带来了挥之不去的痛苦,但是印度人仍与西方世界保持着近距离的接触。他们比中国人更容易成为成熟的消费者,中国人还需要10年或20年,才能逃出极权主义加诸在他们身上的麻木的扭曲和严重的隔离。印度人具有相当有趣的命运波折,他们的种姓制度也有有益的一面,因为吠舍(Vaishyas)这个商贩和生意人的种姓使商业企业可以一代又一代地传承经验。政府因反对意见而紧张不安,而种姓却巧妙地开拓出一条通往全球领导力的捷径,难怪印度人喜欢说:“我们的经济是夜生长,政府那时还驻在梦乡。”[48]
家家都有本难念的经,国家亦如是,而印度的责任则很沉重。虽然劳动法禁止剥削,但是印度腐败成风,危险的公路、频繁的抗议、暴力袭击宗教少数派、糟糕的卫生条件和长期的电力短缺比比皆是。它的金融体系比中国的国有银行强壮些,很好地扛住了2008年的金融危机。[49]与印度淤滞的民主制度相比,中国政府可以更迅速地解决社会问题,宗教和种族的多样性进一步加剧了印度的这种堵塞。中国也存在许多同样的问题:深重的贫困,无处不在的腐败和不断扩大的贫富差距。甘地在整个西方世界是一位被传颂的英雄,而毛泽东则完全是一介平民。这些文化遗产的去伪存真需要一些时间。
更深层次的社会问题隐藏在印度和中国地位较高的一群人中:他们对社会地位低微的人,特别是农民,表现出了无比的轻视。这是大多数西方人无法理解的一种态度,它不只是简单的偏见,而且造成了许多的痛苦,两国领导人都明确表示要解决这个问题。18世纪,欧洲的政治自由化扭转了贵族类似的道德观念。宗教仇视或是正式和非正式的种姓制度,这些现实的存在之道与资本主义的同质化倾向背道而驰。中国人民和印度人民似乎都渴望繁荣开放的社会,但是在某种程度上,想要达成这个愿望,所有人必须先停止对穷苦乡下人的无礼冒犯。
2008年,世贸组织的多哈回合谈判不欢而散,而在此之前,印度和中国受邀加入包括美国、欧盟的27个国家、巴西、澳大利亚和日本的新七国集团。用华尔街投资者的行话来说,金砖四国即巴西、俄罗斯、印度和中国这些新兴市场现在炙手可热。2007年,印度、中国和巴西创造了最多的百万富翁,这证明了这几个国家的经济繁荣,也证明了资本主义制度不平等的嘉奖。[50]2008年,新兴市场的热度呈现出下降的趋势,现金短缺的外国投资者为了弥补他们国内的杠杆债务,开始撤回资金。印度损失了110亿美元的国外投资。新兴市场还经历了出口需求收缩的双重打击,这些打击刺激了它们的经济增长和对外国投资基金的收缩。[51]至少他们和客户坐在同一条船上。
欧洲人和美国人还没有完全想清楚亚洲登上世界经济舞台的意义。商业引力的中心不仅偏向了东方,而且更有趣的是,资本主义展示出了远离故土后变色龙般的适应能力。这并不意味着亚洲新手意识到了自己的力量。中国和印度对美国具有挥之不去的情感,他们总共拥有两万亿美元的美国政府债券。这些债券几乎没有产生收益,所以经济学家劳伦斯·萨默斯(Lawrence Summers)力劝亚洲领导人转而把钱投进区域基金,资助基建项目。这些行动很及时,因为印度和中国与它们西方先辈一样,已经污染了自己的经济发展之路。萨默斯还推动建立了南亚自由贸易联盟(South Asian Free Trade Alliance),研究方法,使合作可以增强现在已经存在的竞争。[52]过去的20年里,印度和中国显然已经找到了登上世界经济舞台的入口。只是西方最初发展资本主义的国家将如何调整它们的表现、权力和不同的政治方法,这会为有关未来的想法增添情趣。
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