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  • 1

    文前辅文

    此书献给吾儿,弗兰克·阿普尔比, 他是我心灵的港湾,也是我不断追求知识、感知幽默、保持热情的源泉

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  • 2

    传统社会中的稀缺

    全世界的传统社会都建在稀缺的基石之上,尤其是粮食短缺。无论是在古代的埃及、希腊,还是在古巴比伦和古蒙古,80%以上的人口都在从事粮食生产。即使这样,农民仍常常生产不出供养全社会的口粮,于是就会闹饥荒。年复一年,除了富庶的家庭,大多数人在农作物尚未成熟的几个月里,都得勒紧裤腰带过日子。各处的人们都对饥荒充满了恐惧。而粮食问题一旦与经济和政治因素联系起来,饥饿往

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  • 3

    资本主义的区别

    “资本”这个词可以帮助我们明确这次历史巡航的行动路线。资本是有特定用途的钱。钱可以存起来以备不时之需,也可以花出去及时行乐。在这两种情况下,钱还是钱。只有当我们投资某项事业并期望获得回报时,钱才能称为资本。简而言之,生钱的钱才是资本,一般来说,这个转变总会伴随着某种生产活动。而只有当私人投资的意愿和策略成为主流时,我们才能在“资本”后面写上“主义”,这种演变

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  • 4

    开拓者

    资本主义在全球范围内四处活动。而我却非指着北大西洋上的一个小岛国说,这里才是资本主义的开端,似乎有点反常。可是只有在英国,这些激动人心的新事物才突破了社会和智力的条条框框,从而形成了商品生产的全新体系。一系列始于农业、终于工业的变化标志了贸易发展的这个时点,此前,商业长期在传统社会的夹缝里挣扎,现在它终于挣脱了法律、阶级结构、个体行为和广泛认同的价值观对它的

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  • 5

    欧洲的分歧

    英国人脱离了农业创新,释放了可用于环球贸易以及开创性机械工业的工人和资金,但这一切并非不可避免。现在回想起来,这一进程似乎天衣无缝,但事实并不一定如此。表观推断反映了人们倾向于相信已经发生的原本就该发生。如果我们想要理解资本主义,理解它并不是人类历史注定的篇章,而是对四千年主流惯例的一次背离,那么我们打破这种思维定势很重要。商贸同样也不具有形成资本主义的力量

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  • 6

    经济的变化与分析

    亚当·斯密(Adam Smith)为大多数经济学家提供了思考资本主义历史的线索。他的《国富论》是第一本有关英国经济变迁的巨著,论述了1776年,也就是这本书出版之前的两个世纪里英国经济的变化。斯密从更长的时间序列上分析了经济的渐进,这些步骤随着时间推移而不断演变。资本主义的历史毫不费力地向前迈进,这一说法产生了资本主义历史的最大讽刺,它解释了资本主义的起源,

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  • 7

    研究的影响

    这些强大的思想家——斯密、马克思和韦伯——对后续有关资本主义的分析产生了极大的影响。作为一名学者,我一直着迷于经济发展如何改变了我们对物质世界的看法,如何改变了我们看待自身以及工作和生活的方式。虽然我学习了所有这些主流理论,但对我影响最深的还是韦伯,他强调资本主义形成的偶然因素以及意想不到的结果,他也尊重文化和智力特征在历史中扮演的角色,这些都深深地触动了我

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  • 8

    资本主义也是文化体系

    经济体制不会孤立存在,它总是与国家的法律和习俗紧密联系。尽管资本主义依靠的是个人意愿和个别选择,但这种关联仍存在。经济一直影响着社会,而社会习俗反过来也引导了人们的欲望和野心。社会惯例决定了家庭规模,而家庭规模又影响了种群动态。无论是地主,还是农民,无论是贸易商,还是制造商,他们在过去、现在和未来都不是纯粹的经济参与者,他们都有复杂的社会需求,并且在社会中扮

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  • 9

    贸易限制

    贸易中心的交流充满宗教的、实用的、浪漫的和政治的色彩。北美大陆西北角的炫财冬节经由赠送礼物来流通财富。国王利用税捐获得商品和服务,征服者受纳贡品,而商业交流则依靠的是金钱、中间商和簿记,这种依赖产生了最持久的影响。 公元前4000年,美索不达米亚三角洲建立了第一个人类定居点,以物易物也随之出现。然而,18世纪前,人们对商人根深蒂固的偏见使贸易一直局限在狭窄的

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  • 10

    欧洲统治

    虽然东亚贸易的参与者分为不同的种族和宗教,但他们在葡萄牙人到来前,一致认为海洋不属于任何人。随着新来者的抵达,这个态度有所转变。阿尔伯克基的国王获得马拉巴尔海岸、锡兰、马六甲和忽鲁谟斯的控制权后,拥有了各种头衔。1509年,葡萄牙击败了埃及舰队,取得了印度洋的海上霸权。作为该区域另一支强大的海军力量,中国退出了这场竞争,葡萄牙因此控制了大部分贸易。近一个世纪

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  • 11

    内战的影响

    英国和荷兰的成功吸引我们仔细观察了这两个国家政治上的变化。虽然当时不被看好,但是英国和荷兰为了争取更大的民族自决权,几乎在同一时间发动了战争,挑战了西班牙和葡萄牙在新大陆和东印度群岛的统治地位。从西班牙的哈布斯堡王朝开始,荷兰人为独立战斗了八十多年。16世纪晚期,荷兰终于赢得了自由,1648年,西班牙正式承认荷兰独立后,它比欧洲其他任何地方都要富有。但是这些

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  • 12

    荷兰是经济模型

    西班牙军队在保卫西属尼德兰的斗争中摧毁了安特卫普,于是著名的西班牙银行家干脆向北迁移到了阿姆斯特丹。在薪资和货物的诱惑下,荷兰变成了欧洲的金融中心。1609年,阿姆斯特丹银行成立,它提供的利率比其他地方少一半还多。荷兰为每种情形、每位客户灵活地定制信贷安排,再次获得了成功。甚至曾经抗拒的西班牙君主也开始向拥有财产的银行家借钱。渐渐的,西班牙王室欠荷兰金融家的

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  • 13

    贸易与社会

    16世纪,贸易创造了新财富,并且通过货币交易深入乡村,所以它比早先的商业冒险具有更广泛的影响力。征服者在印加和阿兹特克窃取了大量的白银,使欧洲深陷一个世纪之久的通货膨胀。这次通货膨胀不是莎士比亚剧中波西亚描述的雨,它并没有公平地落在每个人的身上。它伤害了依靠固定收入维持生计的人,比如签下旧租约的店主。工资远追不上物价的上涨,可通胀提振了企业家,也提高了从事东

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  • 14

    无意与意外的影响

    16~17世纪,欧洲经历了文艺复兴,印度莫卧儿王朝和中国明代也正当盛世。奥斯曼哈里发用军队威胁维也纳,仍意图控制世界贸易和欧洲大地。欧洲的基督徒和奥斯曼的穆斯林发觉了彼此迥异而又迷人的风格。在波斯贵族的财产中,我们能发现意大利的刻花玻璃花瓶和漆盒,意大利逐步发展的装饰艺术和制陶业技术源自叙利亚和伊拉克,伊斯兰的艺术家临摹他们在欧洲王室画像中见过的自然主义风格

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  • 15

    不断扩大的消费品篮子

    前现代时期,地理、气候和土生土长的动物基本决定了餐桌上的食物。在寒冷的天气里,谷物、腌肉和根茎类蔬菜是人们越冬的食物。羔羊在春天宰杀,一年四季都有牛肉,但因为饲养成本高,所以宰杀的动物通常都是幼崽。好猎手可以打下空中飞向南方的鸟。手头宽裕的农场主妻子可以饲养兔子和鸡,有时他们还养蜜蜂。每年十月以前,各家各户可以吃到自家种植的水果和蔬菜。再往后,苹果就会制成苹

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  • 16

    人口增长和农业

    出生和死亡的节律设定了人口扩大和收缩的进度。年景好,人们就会养育更多的孩子——或者说,更多的孩子能活下来。久而久之,新一代膨胀的需求推高了粮食价格,反过来还鼓励一些农民去寻找和耕作一些边缘的地块。更大的需求导致了更高的价格,这使人们去开发相对贫瘠的土地来讨生活,但是要养活越来越庞大的人口,用这个策略注定会失败。最终,产量会下降,放大的人口也更容易遭遇饥荒。欧

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  • 17

    食品成本如何限制经济发展

    因为约80%的人口在从事粮食生产,所以很少有额外的劳动力和资金去支持许多其他事业。务农累积的盈余一般都计入了统治者的税收、地主的租金和教会的什一税。中产阶级和上流社会的成员——皇室官员、地主和神职人员——仍旧依靠田里劳作的人上缴的税金和租金供养,而不是从企业获得的收入。其他人——批发商、律师、银行家、零售商——则以收取税金、什一税和租金过活。如果粮食生产没有

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  • 18

    荷兰的农业改良

    荷兰的联合省是欧洲的奇迹,尤其是16世纪末,它们脱离西班牙获得独立后,从北海的潮汐入侵中费力地争得了土地。他们从拍打海岸的海水里捕获了成吨的鲱鱼,建立了世界最大的商船队,把这些宝贵的蛋白质来源运往欧洲邻国。佛兰德斯的农民开垦了荒地,这些沙质的荒地一般不能培育谷物,只能种植亚麻和大麻,这些作物可以制造亚麻制品和绳索(大麻的用处就不用说了)。这些作物的好处是它们

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  • 19

    英国农业的改良者

    新一轮的农业改良使英国摆脱了“七年丰裕,七年饥馑”的现象。这一次农业改良是永久的改变,而不是与常见阻碍的冲突,所以它的收益是稳定的。接下来的三个半世纪,欧洲西北部农民人口的比例从80%左右下降到了差不多3%。英国的自由租地农和地主这两个群体在很大程度上已经摆脱了有待改变的体制约束。他们用反映市场价格的租约成功代替了较低的固定租金。这些都是潜在的创新。因为地主

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  • 20

    启动资本主义的泵

    改良的农业技术没有止步于提高产量,它们还颠覆了旧有的农业秩序。它们为市场进行生产,用所有的实际调整取代了传统和继承身份指引的固定生活方式。马克思和他的追随者有一个观点很正确,即新所有者阶级具有一致性,他们会用影响力和资金去保护对他们利益有利的政策。讽刺的是,这次复杂的社会重排最初竟然被视为一次自然的进程。改良地主运动的一部分是要使地主摆脱旧限制,这些限制在反

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  • 21

    新经济论述

    英国市场经济的形成历经了两个世纪,自始至终都存在一股活力,而这股朝气蓬勃的劲儿最初是由17世纪的宗教和宪法纠纷培育出来的。生财的新机会越来越明显,当时的人开始寻求解释,他们很容易就会发表关于传统经济正在发生什么的看法。他们往往写文章来证明自己作为积极的市场参与者的特定利益。某些分析家是“代笔”,他们为海外贸易公司或国内制造商进行辩护。道德家则常常借由书写来哀

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  • 22

    评估雇主对工人的责任

    1994年,世界银行在马德里召开年度会议。西班牙最受欢迎的广播名人I.加比隆多(Iñaki Gabilondo)相当反常地派出了一名记者去采访教堂外等候免费圣诞大餐的人群,询问他们如何看待金融家会聚在他们的城市。他们用哄笑回应了采访记者的这个导引问题。记者使他们相信,他是很认真地想知道他们的观点时,这些等待免费食物的人热切地发表了他们对国家经济需要的意见。不

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  • 23

    高利贷的讨论

    在实际层面上,把资金放在知道如何投资的人手中,这对经济发展的推动者来说是重要的挑战。借贷要求偿本付息,违反了圣经有关高利贷的禁令。根深蒂固的宗教缘由阻止了人们自由地使用金钱。商业扩张的批评者大加利用了旧约传达的社会愿景,他们认为,钱不可生钱,不能为了获得回报而出借。对犹太人来说,《摩西五经》的法律篇则清晰地订立了希伯来人兄弟会的盟约。 《申命记》高利贷的有关

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  • 24

    英国的货币危机

    英国有关经济学的思考的另一个突破是货币危机。在事业和交易的新世界里,货币是最令人头痛的新要素。这个词被赋予了许多不同的意义。货币一直代表着大量的财富,现在它还变成了远地市场交易的润滑剂。而货币也是现金,是即时享乐的手段。而且货币是——好吧——金钱——也就是说,在君主许可的数量和纯度的保证下,金银被铸造成了法定货币。 想到货币就会眩晕。比如,金银铸成硬币后与它

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  • 25

    英国新政权下的经济发展

    1689年,玛丽和她的丈夫威廉登上了英格兰的宝座,这一事件促成了英国与法国的第一次战争。这些战争种下的仇恨影响了经济发展,筑高了关税之墙,引起了欧洲贸易的倒退。新国王的特权受到限制,而且更糟的是——或者说以人民的立场来看更好的是——国王从今往后必须与议会分享权力。自此,英国人在议会中的国王这个新政权下,可以限制并集中国家的权力。这两项成就对企业来说都是好消息

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  • 26

    新的经济思想

    从17世纪晚期开始,路易十四的重臣、闻名于世的让·巴蒂斯特·科尔贝尔(Jean-Baptiste Colbert)就让法国政府成了商业规划必不可少的一部分。政府积极地推广新技术,建立行政机构处理工业和劳动力问题,并且广泛地提供如何提高利润的建议,但结果并不讨喜。两代过后,提高法国养活人民能力的强烈需要激发了一群新的经济学家与君主走在了一起。这些分析家赋予农业

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  • 27

    新的劳动力来源

    西班牙人以及后来的葡萄牙人试图奴役幸存下来的土著居民,但是很少成功。1495年,哥伦布甚至把500名被俘的印第安人送回了塞维利亚。16世纪早期的几十年,一批接一批的西班牙征服者奔赴大安的列斯群岛,强迫土著居民为他们淘金和生产粮食。巴托洛梅·德拉斯·卡萨斯(Bartolomé de Las Casas)是1511年血腥征服古巴的见证人之一。卡萨斯是牧师、历史学

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  • 28

    西班牙湖上的违约

    资本主义利润最大化的最有力证据就是欧洲在新大陆殖民地刮起的蔗糖风。哥伦布在第二次航行时,把甘蔗幼苗带到了加勒比地区。西班牙当局鼓励殖民者种植甘蔗,但是他们更感兴趣的是贵金属。所以这项业务就留给了巴西的葡萄牙人,他们证实了一旦拥有可以做苦差事的工人,利润就会随煮沸的甘蔗流淌出来。马德拉群岛和圣多美岛的糖料种植为葡萄牙人在新大陆建立种植园提供了模板。过去的三个多

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  • 29

    英国大陆殖民地的奴隶

    所有欧洲国家探索新大陆的初衷都不是带回非洲奴隶,为全球市场种植异国作物。弗吉尼亚、巴巴多斯和南卡罗莱纳三个转向奴隶劳动的英属殖民地为这种转变如何发生提供了真实的例子。弗吉尼亚是英国于1607年建立的第一个殖民地,它被寄予厚望,可以找到黄金和白银。一位殖民者经过十年的失望和困苦,杂交出了可与西班牙烟叶媲美的品种,最终是烟草拯救了这片殖民地。在英国,吸烟和咀嚼烟

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  • 30

    要求合理化的劳动制度

    存在四个世纪的奴隶制吸引了我们的注意。欧洲文化中有什么允许这样的暴行,让他们对非洲人以及北美和南美的土著居民犯下这样的罪?其一,当时世界各地的残暴水平使奴隶制并没那么显眼。举例来说,一份19世纪的议会报告曾冷静地描述了拖鞋少女的工作优势,说她们可以拉着煤车通过狭窄的矿道。他们对非洲人表现出的麻木不仁,在某种程度上反映了他们对所有依附者的不人道的待遇。再就是,

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  • 31

    工业发明

    说起大西洋奴隶制度的结束,我们又回到了资本主义历史上18世纪的另一个篇章,其中一个问题是,技术奇才改变工作世界的时候,英国本土发生了什么。曾有个笑话说,只有最好的毕业生才会被告知没有工业革命。这个概念的问题卡在了“革命”这个词上。革命隐含了戏剧性的变化和意外。而这个名词的解释里,只有戏剧性变化的部分符合19世纪英国的真实情况,因为隐藏在革命标题下的工业创新和

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  • 32

    科技革命

    并不是所有愿望都可以产生新的想法。俗话说,“如果愿望是马,乞丐也有马骑”。我们知道一小撮发明家发明了神奇的机器,因此我们相信,如果找到他们的动机,那么我们就可以解释他们踏上魔毯的原因。但机械设计需要的不只是良好的动机,而且在这种情况下,天资也说明不了问题。托马斯·塞维利(Thomas Savery)、纽科门和瓦特,他们都把创造力积累成了丰富的经验;他们总结出

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  • 33

    发明家和他们的发明

    全世界人类创造才能的普遍性表明,没有任何一个国家、种族或大陆可以锁住这些创造力。阿拉伯人和中国人在科学方面的关键进步远比欧洲要早。他们甚至还开发了复杂的液压系统。在撒哈拉以南的非洲地区,工匠们可以熟练地采矿,并用金、铜、锡和铁制作器物。哥伦布发现美洲大陆之前,玛雅人、印加人、阿兹特克人在没有利用铁骑或轮子的情况下,已经修建了宏伟的建筑。这些例子都是为了告诉我

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  • 34

    改良的纺织和制陶

    19世纪20年代标志着蒸汽时代的开始,这个时代改变了地球的面貌——大气层、生物圈、水圈和地表。100年前,世界人口开始增长,到20世纪末达到了顶峰。越来越多的嘴要吃饭、身体要穿衣、家庭要住所,工厂要燃料,对长期不为人知的化石燃料的贪欲部分地推动了人口膨胀。回顾历史,无数工业技术次第产生的意外后果带来的级联效应非常可怕。又过了一个半世纪,人们才意识到,数亿两足

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  • 35

    工厂的外观

    工人在酿酒厂、造船厂、高炉、矿山和造纸厂中已经工作了很久。虽然工厂工人仍是现代社会各种劳动大军中的一小部分,但随着纺织制造和制陶的工业化,工厂成了新工业时代的象征。诗人威廉·布莱克(William Blake)难忘地称它们为“黑暗邪恶的工厂”。使用水力的工厂散布在英国乡村,但是大多数蒸汽动力的工厂仍聚集在英国中部的煤炭产地周围。工厂是黑暗、肮脏和危险的地方,

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  • 36

    科技进步的智力影响

    人们可以用他们喜欢的英国品质来解释英国的工业发展——高工资和低燃料成本、稳定的土地所有权、农业技术改进、低税收、城市的崛起和科学文化——但是他们为什么不承认,所有这些元素都是互相加强的呢?这一系列前所未有的发明掺杂着诸多因素,这些因素就像基因一样,利用它们的反馈机制交互作用,才实现了这一生产过程的革命。一些人强调财务动机如何激发人们发明了省力机器,他们理所当

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  • 37

    法国和英国的启蒙运动

    18世纪,在对欧洲社会的变革至关重要的思想剧中,法国和英国有着迷人的关系。英国人以全新社会的姿态走进了这个世纪,这个新社会放弃了审查制度,并且在国王、贵族和平民之中进行了权力分配,用平衡宪法代替了政治专制主义(下议院并不完全代表普通民众。下议院成员积累的财富比贵族还多,但下议院仍是人民的象征)。而在法国,晦涩难懂的法律使想成为企业家的人陷入了困境。工人和农民

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  • 38

    经济发展和德国国籍

    德意志各州的经济发展差异较大,因为它们是拼接的百衲衣,而不是国家之毯包裹的集团。350个德国公国缺少统一的度量衡、消费税、公路通行权、商业惯例,更不用说统一的货币、银行机构和免费运输。自治城市并没有推动商业,而是担起了教会、大学或王室法院等行政中心的角色。特别是在普鲁士,它的军队控制着大部分的公共基金,各处的行政开支都是臃肿的。18、19世纪虽然英国的农业改

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  • 39

    美国的私人倡议

    在美国,商业社会在不寻常又极其不同的环境下苦心经营。商业和民主的互动加快了国家的发展。美国人用鲜血和债务为他们的革命付出了沉重的代价,但是1789年,长期的经济低迷终于结束了。复苏的经济推动了道路建设、扩大的邮政服务和报纸出版。如果不论大小的话,美国发行的报纸比世界上任何国家都多。根据宪法建立的新政府恰巧赶上了经济形势好转的时机。 财政部长亚历山大·汉密尔顿

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  • 40

    德国与美国的技术

    美国与德国借用了英国纺织制造和机车设计这两个基础工业的技术。这两个国家以英国的设计作为出发点,进行了无数次的修改和辅助发明,它们非常善于完善英国、比利时和法国的发明。约翰·杰维斯(John Jervis)对铁路的贡献就是范例。英国的机车不太容易急转弯,所以杰维斯重构了它们,与他的英国先辈进行了一场创造性的对话。1836年,美国制造商不再从英国进口机车,因为他

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  • 41

    银行的角色

    资本主义的历史上,铁路投资的规模和持久性非常重要。我们可以从1865年的事件中搜集到一些信息,证明铁路对经济发展的重要程度,那时,纽约中央铁路公司(New York Central Railroad)的资产相当于全美国制造业财富的1/4。建设铁路需要投入大量资金,这改变了铁路所有者的运营策略,因为铁路资产远远超过了它的经营成本。铁路资本的固定性使紧缩开支根本

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  • 42

    公司的效益

    公司注册成立的法律形式是最具革命性的产业金融,它赋予了企业的所有者有限责任。公司是一种长期存在的方式,城市或慈善机构因此可以永久地获得特定且高度的自主权。我们把居民区也纳入其内。如果参与者非常合拍,那么良好经营的合伙关系可以汇集资本,而且这种情况现在仍有。但是人有悲欢离合,所以合伙人通常会订立合同,每个合伙人都能够解除合作关系。契约轻易就能解除,这对公司的长

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  • 43

    1873年旷日持久的萧条

    1873年是资本主义历史上非常糟糕的一年。经济开始萧条,某些领域的萎靡不振甚至持续了26年之久!自由企业制度的问题之一源于它分散的决策。个人和私营企业各自算计自己的最大利益,并且依此行事,因此很难知道这些市场行为放在一起将会发生什么。也就是说,没有人管事。虽然价格和利率可以传递信息,但是这些特定的价格和利率也是由决策决定,所以决策背后的成因必须得到解释。一切

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  • 44

    德国企业家

    奥古斯特·蒂森去世时,《纽约时报》的讣告戏称他为“鲁尔的洛克菲勒”。这么说是为了押r字头韵,蒂森其实更像是安德鲁·卡内基。他脾气火暴而且求胜心切,他的活力改变了德国的钢铁行业。他出生于一个富有的莱茵兰银行家族。30岁时,他的婚姻甚至为他的事业提供了更多的资金。为了满足用于桶、包、箱、导管和管线的带钢日益增长的需求蒂森开始收购钢铁厂。他将他的商品远销俄罗斯,建

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  • 45

    为穷人改变的选项

    农场设备最开始依靠的是马力,接着是蒸汽机和内燃机的驱动,农场设备的机械化影响了全球。美国农场的大丰收多亏了赛勒斯·麦考密克(Cyrus McCormick)发明的收割机,它为美国的家庭农场迎来了一段繁荣期,并且压低了世界的商品价格。早在19世纪70年代,价格低廉的美国谷物就唤起了欧洲国家的关税保护。航运业采用了蒸汽动力,使横渡大西洋的运输更加容易,这导致美国

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  • 46

    讨论资本主义的起源

    工业化改造了工人阶级。新无产阶级的成员对重新划分了他们国家的经济变化有着不同的反应。19世纪中叶,与英国和美国相比,德国、比利时和法国更快地实现了工业化。资本主义的降临攻击了习俗,然而,在英裔美国人的世界里,开始于18世纪的机械化车间慢慢地蔓延开来。这种从容不迫的发展步伐延续了几代人,所以人们相信,工业化是社会自然的经济发展潜能进化演变的一部分。亚当·斯密曾

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  • 47

    欧洲的劳工积极分子

    激进组织的发展为西方资本主义的领导者敲响了警钟。1883年,德皇威廉一世经历了两次袭击后,德国政府取缔了所有的社会民主主义、社会主义和共产主义的组织。而且政府每三年都会重申这一法律。与美国不同,德国有社会支持的传统,这源于它早期的家长式统治。社会福利立法着重强调了有关工人组织的苛刻法律。借用总理俾斯麦的话来说,无产阶级必须认识到“国家不仅是必要的体制,也是社

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  • 48

    美国劳工的独特斗争

    美国劳工的情况明显不同。因为从殖民时代起,美国就没有贵族,甚至没有公认的精英,所以美国人觉得他们自己在政治上是信奉民主的毫无差别的社会成员。而等级差别明显地触怒了美国人的自我形象。19世纪,即使没有财产的美国人都有投票权,宪法《第十四条修正案》保证非洲裔美国人也有此项权利。内战之后,工业化给土生土长的白种工人带来了新机会。[14]公司取代了家族所有者和合伙关

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  • 49

    消费者日益重要

    美国社会不是通常所述的金字塔结构,底层人最多,向上逐渐减少,而顶部则坐着一小撮的精英;美国社会更像是西红柿,它的顶层是一部分富人,中间人很多,往下慢慢变少。美国主要由农民构成,它的过去没有贵族,而且直到近代才出现了工薪阶级,所以美国社会培育出了庞大的中产阶级。他们在口味、教育和地方特征上虽然有所差异,但是他们都缺乏有影响力的上层阶级的支持。毫无疑问,封闭的社

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  • 50

    去非洲的欧洲传教士

    西方探险的活动范围令人吃惊,所以我们很难想象19世纪50年代以前,居然几乎没有人了解撒哈拉以南的非洲地区。不知何故,撒哈拉以南的非洲地区没有像北美、南美、澳大利亚、新西兰、印度尼西亚和印度那样成为欧洲的殖民地。致命的疾病,尤其是疟疾使撒哈拉以南的非洲地区成了欧洲人的死亡陷阱。而不同寻常的是,大卫·利文斯通(David Livingstone)却只身打开了非洲

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  • 51

    比利时国王利奥波德的帝国野心

    斯坦利宣传的非洲的前途横跨英吉利海峡,煽动了一位显赫的欧洲人。他就是比利时的国王,利奥波德二世。利奥波德的父亲曾抓住时机推动了比利时工业企业的发展,其中还包括欧洲的第一个铁路系统,而利奥波德则从父亲那里继承了一大笔钱。他下决心要获得一块殖民地,提升比利时这个小国家的地位,他为了了解西班牙从其殖民地获得了多少好处,竟然查遍了马德里所有有关西印度群岛的档案文件。

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  • 52

    其他在非洲的欧洲国家

    虽然利奥波德的行为是欧洲劫掠最极端的记录,但是他的邻居也争分夺秒地加入了非洲的这场土地和劳动力的争夺战。18世纪末,法国失去了新法兰西及其印度的属地,1830年,法国入侵了阿尔及利亚,开创了一个新帝国。一代过后,法国逐渐从普法战争失败的刺痛中缓过劲来,它开始派探险队去塞内加尔河考察。法国就是从那里出发,最终成功地占领了非洲西北部1/4的疆域,包括突尼斯和摩洛

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  • 53

    西方世界觉醒的良知

    在瓜分非洲的几年里,大卫·利文斯通和亨利·莫顿·斯坦利代表着把欧洲人带入非洲的两股动力。斯坦利象征着姿态傲慢的剥削,而利文斯通则表现了对他人身心幸福的奉献。许多像斯坦利一样的私人事业不仅削弱了这些国家击退西方势力的能力,还在许多方面破坏了它们文化的完整性。基督教传教士关心非洲人民,但是也抱定了要改变他们的决心。尽管斯坦利和利文斯通之间横亘着一条道德的鸿沟,但

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  • 54

    东方的新对手

    欧洲扩张期间,视线之外的日本经历了一次巨变,1867年,封建的江户幕府让位于明治维新时,这次变革达到了顶峰。原因很难说清,1637年,日本德川系第三代幕府首领颁布了“闭关锁国”的法令。[14]这很有可能是他对西班牙、葡萄牙、荷兰、法国和英国出现在印度洋和太平洋上的防御性反应。这种克己的条令非常符合日本民族精神中的仇外心理,但是它激怒了想去哪儿就去哪儿的西方人

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  • 55

    公司重组

    19世纪和20世纪之交,善变的资本主义再度改变了它的节奏和结构。与帝国主义毫无章法地占领新地盘形成鲜明的对比,商业企业成了现在的关键角色,它变得越来越理性,越来越高效,组织性也越来越强。铁路和电报的早期发展为复杂的企业结构奠定了基础。火车和电报打破了村镇之间的区隔,连接了天各一方的城市。电报线路和铁轨保持了人、货物和信息的连续运动。如果组织得井井有条,新企业

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  • 56

    行业范围

    德国人为科学教育投入了大量的资源,同时也共享着欧洲人从事经典研究的高溢价。德国研究人员在19世纪晚期才找到他们科学发现的实际应用。这些应用非常惊人!在能源、电力和光学等方面,法国和英国的同行加在一起,也没有德国人的知识丰富。学术研究人员和商界领袖密切合作,当时的人间或将其称为秘密婚姻。1890年,德国化学家的人数是英国的两倍。1914年以前,德国几乎垄断了染

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  • 57

    汽车驾驶的律令

    回顾历史,虽然私人交通工具的转变似乎非常顺利,但是汽车仍是高要求的新事物。普通人如果不想坐公共汽车或火车,他们就必须学会操作复杂的机器。车辆的行驶距离取决于道路建设和燃料供应。以前,我们在杂货店购买石油,现在汽车对石油的需求带动了一项新的零售业务,城市之间的公路沿线建起了加油站。人们为了适应汽车,甚至不得不更新他们的观念。原本只能走路或骑马到达的有限距离现在

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  • 58

    美国联邦政府的权力

    第一次公司权力的严重削弱发生在1887年,美国国会成立了州际商务委员会(Interstate Commerce Commission),负责管理州界之外的交通营运路线。三年后,《谢尔曼反托拉斯法案》(Sherman Antitrust Act)首度尝试对大公司进行监管,这部法案解释说,大公司的规模限制了行业发展。但是脱缰野马难以挽回。大政府时代到来以前,公司

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  • 59

    全球对一战的反应

    第一次世界大战宣告了奥匈帝国、奥斯曼帝国和德国君主制的完结。代表美国出席和平谈判的伍德罗·威尔逊(Woodrow Wilson)总统激动人心地向所有人呼吁民族自决,振奋了全世界在压迫下挣扎的人民。为了打世界大战,欧洲国家调动了所有的资源,包括它们广大的殖民地。殖民地的人民通过参与战争,认识了一个更广阔的世界,他们在这个世界中能够找到一个独立的所在。尽管回想起

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  • 60

    全球扩散的经济萧条

    两次缓慢又无情的运动有助于解释经济衰退日益严重的原因,开始于20世纪30年代早期的大萧条就是这次经济低迷的示例。男男女女——通常是年轻人——离开了乡村农场和服务的工作,来到了城市的工业中心,民族企业与世界市场的联系也越来越紧密。这两项发展都是进步的标志,但是也使越来越多的人和企业躲不开来自世界其他角落的破坏。国家对经济的控制逐渐减少。此时,资本主义的另一个特

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  • 61

    一战挥之不去的阴霾

    结果遗憾地证明,第一次世界大战造成的最严重的后果不是经济,而是政治。1933年3月,罗斯福总统就职典礼的第二天,阿道夫·希特勒被授予了全面统治德国的权力。20世纪30年代的经历,与典型的立法机构和公民权利、自由市场和个人政治自由一道,使自由民主的名声扫地。与墨索里尼一样,希特勒的成功也是利用了战后时期战败经济体中充斥的民怨。他订立了雄心勃勃的国家计划,毕竟德

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  • 62

    难忘的战时生产

    生产战争物资的关键需要对所有交战国的经济来说都是最大的压力。英国、德国、美国和苏联根据各自不同的工业实力和战争目标,动用了一切手段。为了满足战时需求,它们最初并没有抢占国内生产,而是向大萧条中失业的人提供就业机会。政府的军事开支终结了大萧条。战斗打响一年后,1/2到2/3的工业劳动力被卷入了军工生产。每个参战国的战争目标都与它的政体特征相互作用,调整成为战时

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  • 63

    马歇尔计划

    在资本主义的历史书上,战后欧洲的篇章非常有趣,因为资本主义在欧洲不同的发展轨迹提醒了我们,企业可以通过很多途径茁壮成长。战争结束后,哀鸿遍野的西欧用了差不多五年时间才完全恢复了工业实力。1950年,西欧的国内生产总值(gross domestic product,简称GDP)相当于美国1905年的国内生产总值!这样的差距是最后一次出现。接下来的20年是西欧持

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  • 64

    国际合作的新举措

    俗话说,没有坏消息就是好消息。两次毁灭性的世界大战在20年之内接连爆发很肯定地验证了一个命题:短暂的和平间隔就是好消息。让·莫内(Jean Monnet)和罗伯特·舒曼(Robert Schuman)等许多成年男子都参加过这两次大战。在二战的最后时刻,这些国家的领导人决心做一些不同的事情。莫内在成为国际联盟的外交官之前,曾代表家族的白兰地公司学习过英国、美国

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  • 65

    汽车制造商和战争

    1933年,纳粹上台,汽车制造业出现了一个政治演员。希特勒想效仿福特大规模地生产汽车。[12]此时,奥地利汽车奇才费迪南德·保时捷(Ferdinand Porsche)走进了画面。他跟随戴姆勒汽车公司(Daimler Motors)一起来到德国,但是自戴姆勒与奔驰合并后,他的想法一直无法取悦梅赛德斯-奔驰的高层。不过保时捷与希特勒却很合得来,希特勒的“力量来

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  • 66

    全速前进的美国经济

    战后头两年,美国发生了空前迅速的和平转变。政府管制很快消失,军队也立即遣散了士兵、水手、护士和商船海员。公职人员从1200多万减少到了150万。(1939年,欧洲战争开始时,美国陆军在编的官兵就有12万!)和军队解散人员一样迅速的是,禁令、优先权、配额、限制、撤销、价格管制、补贴、配给、挂钩利率等具备战时生产特征的复杂事项也都不见了。[17]国会并没有在经济

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  • 67

    冷清的新和平

    美国人把苏联对邻国的压制解释成它世界统治计划的一部分。1947年,总统哈里·杜鲁门宣布,他打算向希腊和土耳其提供军事支持和经济援助,从而牵制共产主义,这两个国家当时都正在和共产党的叛乱进行斗争。杜鲁门主义提出的概念是,苏联通过代理的反叛团伙施加压力,这种行动一旦成功,就会产生多米诺骨牌效应,一个败给了共产主义的国家也会推倒它的邻居。在杜鲁门向土耳其和希腊提供

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  • 68

    国际贸易的新体系

    战争结束后,某些有远见的人看到了实现相对自由的世界市场的机会。相对自由的世界市场这个目标早先的出发点并不是什么良好的愿望。17世纪,某项发展扫除了不列颠王国内部贸易的地域障碍,从而提升了英国经济。而同一时间在法国,如果不付过路过桥费,你开车绝对走不出25英里。这类的收费特权在法国备受推崇和保护。英国的商品和公民在统一的国内市场中可以自由流通,而在其他国家与地

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  • 69

    技术的社会影响

    20世纪50年代,电视是美国人客厅里最新鲜的玩意儿。电视的发明者菲洛·法恩斯沃思(Philo Farnsworth)证实了机械天才的随机性。法恩斯沃思在犹他州的海狸县长大,他从12岁就开始摆弄电器。1927年,法恩斯沃思利用60条扫描线的电子技术,选择美元符号发送了一幅图像,成为传输电视画面的第一人。虽然法恩斯沃思在与美国无线电公司(Radio Corpor

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  • 70

    美国高等教育的推进

    对美国思维最意义深远的科学影响来自于苏联,而不是美国。1957年,苏联人将一颗重达184磅的卫星送入了太空。一个月后,一艘更大的苏联宇宙飞船带着狗莱卡(Laika)又进入了空间轨道。全世界都可以听到卫星和宇宙飞船传回地球的哔哔、哔哔、哔哔声。美国人惊呆了,他们挨了一记重拳。不到四个月,美国用探险家1号(Explorer 1)加入了苏联的太空探索,但是史普尼克

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  • 71

    德国科学家对美国技术的贡献

    史普尼克号不仅促进了高等教育,还把空间探索变成了冷战时期的竞赛,国会为此殷勤地投入了数十亿美元。虽然美国迅速地遣散了武装力量,但它还是保留了新武器的主要研发计划,苏联也一样。苏联的史普尼克号和美国的探险家号都是借鉴了德国的战时发展。而这些发展又是基于美国人罗伯特·戈达德(Robert Goddard)、俄国人康斯坦丁·齐奥尔科夫斯基(Konstantin T

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  • 72

    电脑的出现

    IBM是战后最伟大的成功故事之一,它受益于政府研究以及一位鼓舞人心的首席执行官。1911年,IBM以生产天平支座、咖啡研磨机、打卡钟、加法机起家,直到托马斯·沃森(Thomas Watson)加入公司三年后,IBM终于发现了它的阿尔弗雷德·斯隆。与斯隆这位19世纪的伟大企业家一样,沃森把他的思想和价值观也贯彻到了公司的方方面面,打造了一支忠实的员工团队。沃森

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  • 73

    新的社会劳动力量

    在17、18世纪以及19世纪的大部分时间里,美国都缺少劳动力。农夫主人代表了很大一部分工人阶级。美国的13个州拥有大面积的土地,与欧洲人口富裕、土地稀少的构成完全相反。这种地广人稀的状况长久影响了美国对待工人的态度。欧洲的旅行者对于美国仆人的独立表示很吃惊,他们还对美国乡村男女的智力和文化水平发表了评论。19世纪末,大量的外国劳工涌入美国工厂,改变了美国工人

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  • 74

    战后繁荣的终结

    大多数人都记得1963年约翰·肯尼迪遇刺时他们在哪儿,但很少有人能清楚地回忆起1973年他们在干什么。只有细细回想才能让我们看清,这一年经历的波峰和波谷多得比过山车还刺激。美元价值跳水,石油价格翻了两番。美国工会成员的数量达到了历史最高,欧洲的出生率开始长期下滑。20世纪70年代,失业率达到了大萧条以来绝无仅有的峰值。人们通常形容对外贸易的增长是出口的急速发

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  • 75

    日本强大的经济实力

    第一个反补贴的例子出现在日本,日本在一个多世纪以前就开始经济转型。接着,亚洲四小龙——新加坡、中国香港、中国台湾和韩国——在20世纪60、70年代也跳出了传统的囚笼。有时它们也被称为东亚的新兴工业化国家(newly industrialized countries,简称NICs),四小龙的起飞脱离了日本的控制,就像日本以前脱离欧洲和美国的控制一样。印度和中国

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  • 76

    个人电脑的到来

    美国利用20世纪80年代的明星产品之一——个人电脑保持了市场领先地位。个人电脑大出风头以前,制造业、零售业和金融公司早已开始使用计算机处理数据。这为外围设备、软件和所谓的芯片创造了市场,芯片是小的晶体硅半导体,把它放在集成电路上可以变出很多电子戏法。顺便说一句,半导体不是兼职的铁路工,它像硅一样,是介于导体和绝缘体之间的元素。 随着计算机组件的价格下降,全国

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  • 77

    个人电脑的另一次技术进步

    个人电脑用户很快彼此相连,形成了知识、信息、数据的聚宝盆以及个人信息系统。网络能将公司或组织范围内使用同一台主机电脑的人连接在一起,这启发了一些研究人员的灵感,他们同理开发了经由电话线或电缆连接个人电脑的技术。互联网的真正源头是美国国防部,1969年,国防部连接了政府和大学实验室的小型计算机。各种网络从阿帕网(ARPANET)开始陆续出现,最初这些网络只覆盖

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  • 78

    亚洲四小龙

    冷战期间,国家分成了资本主义、共产主义和不结盟三派,一位法国人口学家首先提出了第一世界、第二世界和第三世界的概念,区分了西方的第一世界和苏联势力范围的第二世界,以及世界其他的不结盟地区。前两种说法并未流行起来,但是“第三世界”成了一个不可或缺的词语。舆论非常敏感地把旧词“落后”换成了新词“欠发达”。第一世界认为,第三世界没有欠发达地区那么多的穷人。西方以外的

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  • 79

    沃尔玛的零售巫术

    在20世纪最后几十年中,微处理绝不是资本主义的唯一动力,不过,对于本世纪最惊人的成功案例沃尔玛来说,微处理是不可或缺的一部分。1962年,山姆·沃尔顿(Sam Walton)在阿肯色州、密苏里州和俄克拉荷马州开了连锁的折扣商店——沃尔玛。由此,沃尔顿坐上了世界头号零售商的交椅,他想办法绕过了一般加价4%~5%的批发商,从制造商那里直接进货。沃尔顿把阿肯色州本

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  • 80

    资本主义的个人选择

    资本主义促进了无数新药品和新医疗手段的出现。对于女性来说,最具革命性的就是有效避孕。这意味着市场忙于创造财富的同时,也增加了人们的生活选项,成就了一次子宫的反叛。西方国家和日本的出生率急剧下滑,女性生的孩子少了,而且许多人根本没有孩子。这一事实震惊了那些自以为了解女人天性的人。许多国家的人口置换率严重不足。与此同时,20世纪70年代,许多西方国家的性自由也改

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  • 81

    世界贸易组织和它的批评者

    中国和印度在世界贸易组织的保护伞之下,拒绝接受2008年在卡塔尔首都多哈进行的贸易谈判。多哈回合贸易谈判的失败非常像尤吉·贝拉(Yogi Berra)的“似曾相识”。国家谋取特权却忽视了共同关注的问题,这一场景仿佛回到了20世纪20年代。大萧条的深渊和第二次世界大战的恐怖说服西方国家放弃了保护性关税,接受了布雷顿森林协定的限制。61年后的今天,国家利益的毒蛇

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  • 82

    中国不同世代的巨大变革/中国每一代人经历的巨大变化

    代代相传在哪里都很重要,在中国尤其如此。每一代成年人分享的是共同的成长经历。当道德观念、惯例和技术迅速变化时,父母与孩子的世界是分隔的,这在现代社会十分明显。历史学家并不十分关注世代,因为婴儿连续出生,很难说特定的一代何时登场。如果不过多考虑年轻人自我实现的具体观点,他们常常以30年为期来审视其间的变化。在中国,每一个新世代都表现了暴力的特性,这种特性始于1

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  • 83

    中国的经济改革家

    1976年,毛泽东逝世,他留下的社会消沉而贫穷,并且纠缠在政党的层层控制之中。他在两个意义上使经济受到了政治的制约,为了排除外国对国民消费的影响,他监督并且极力推动工业化。他还主持了人民平均寿命和文化方面的大跃进,这个决策对国家的未来发展非常有利。[9]毛泽东去世两年后,邓小平上台,他很快拿出一项计划,为停滞的经济注入了活力。1971年,经历了一场不寻常的乒

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  • 84

    中国的经济特区

    邓小平在南方沿海建立了四个经济特区,这些地方可以进行自由交易并且接受外国投资。事实证明,这些特区非常成功,其他14个沿海城市很快也获得了同样的特权。价值观改变行为。中国共产党在创建这些特区以前,曾认为经济繁荣的南部省份广东因为靠近繁华的香港,所以已经被西方野蛮的生意人污染了。1997年,香港回归中国后,成了中国现代化的典范。 中国共产党放开了许多领域,派出了

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  • 85

    中国的投资资本组合

    中国银行体系的支柱是四家大型的国有银行,这四大银行是社会主义经济的衍生物;1994年,在发展的宗旨下,中国出现了股份制商业银行,还有城市银行。在几乎所有国有银行中,政府都控制着多数股权。国外的直接投资非常多,主要包含的是长期承诺。这些被称作“耐心资本”的承诺让中国比同一地区的大多数国家更好地度过了1997~1998年的亚洲金融危机。中国人是伟大的储蓄者,所以

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  • 86

    东欧没有起效的休克疗法

    中国的改革虽然深刻,但是循序渐进,东欧国家则不同,正如一位评论员对波兰的评述,我们经历了“没有起效的休克疗法”。[34]20世纪80年代,苏联开始着手改革,调整了经济结构,实行了开放政策,并且在政治权力的行使中建立了透明化。1991年,正是在这一双重努力的过程中,苏联和平解体,一党专政的政治秩序变成了民主政治,计划经济转变为市场经济。20世纪90年代早期,西

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  • 87

    英国留给印度的复杂遗产

    印度的发展比中国慢一些,但是比东欧经济要大有可为得多。印度充满活力的政治和精神生活可能比中国的威权体制还有更多优点。印度在独立前的300年,曾是英国占领的殖民地,是资本主义的拓荒人——而且鉴于其文化、人口、面积、纺织制造和战略位置,印度不是一般的殖民地,而是独一无二的重要的殖民地。17世纪末,英国东印度公司开始从印度带回印花棉布和条纹棉布。这些色彩斑斓的棉织

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  • 88

    印度的现代主义者

    印度总理曼莫汉·辛格(Manmohan Singh)是该国新繁荣的建筑师,1991年,辛格成为印度的财政部长,他开始指导印度经济朝着新方向航行。辛格是锡克教教徒,他利用严重的金融危机剥离了印度经济的社会主义成分。他使公众公司私有化,邀请外国投资,并且刺激进出口。最重要的是,他废除了许可证制度(License Raj),这个精心设计的制度使企业在繁文缛节里摸爬

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  • 89

    年轻的印度消费群体

    印度贴近美国,是世界顶级的消费国;印度的国内消费占GDP的64%,相比之下,美国是70%,日本是57%,欧洲是54%,中国是38%。印度零售贷款占银行所有信贷的1/4。中国是储蓄国,印度是消费国。银行针对这一当代现象,充分利用了美好的民俗方式,它们雇用鼓手对那些拖欠付款的债务人演奏小夜曲。而这些鼓手现在得加班加点了,因为印度的债务人陷入了信贷紧缩的困境。与此

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  • 90

    玛哈特玛·甘地和毛泽东——对印度和中国具有深远影响的两个人

    因为资本主义如此密集地冲击着人们的态度、价值观、习惯——这些文化的东西——所以值得我们从更多方面来比较中国和印度这两个国家。20世纪40年代后期,这两个国家在两位极富魅力的领袖——玛哈特玛·甘地和毛泽东的带领下,向它们尊崇的传统发起了挑战。或许它们对资本主义的反应体现了这两位伟人的影响。1913~1948年,甘地领导了印度脱离英国的独立运动,在印度独立六个月

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  • 91

    资本主义历史的重现

    有关商业的事项离开了现代之前的贵族社会的外围,形成了现代社会的中心,我们可以在历史中检测到资本主义起源的缺陷。交易和人际交往一样古老,但它从前主要停留在勇士出没的族群间隙的范围内。欧洲人详细研究了到达西印度群岛的路线,他们发现了具有异国风情的亚洲港口,在那里他们可以买到丝绸和香料。而往另一个方向行进,他们可以到达由两个大陆环抱的、几十个热带岛屿组成的新大陆。

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  • 92

    当代资本主义和它的批评者

    电影《华尔街》里,反面角色戈登·盖柯(Gordon Gekko)说,“贪婪非常好,没有比它更好的词了”。可能很少人会同意这一点。举例来说,1997年,时任美联储主席的艾伦·格林斯潘在国会讲话时就指出了“传染性贪婪”的危险。贪婪不是人们反对资本主义的唯一理由。我简单列举一下,贪婪包括以下这些指责,比如重视短期机会、轻视长期影响,不负责任地行使权力,把物质价值凌

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  • 93

    贫穷问题及其分析家

    虽然“最底层的10亿人”还没摆脱保罗·科利尔(Paul Collier)研究的这个名字,“最底层”对于深陷贫困泥潭的人来说,是令人回味的标签。今天60亿地球人口中,1/6生活在发达的资本主义国家,另外40亿人生活在发展中国家,而其余十几亿人生活在经济一直止步不前的国家。[22]2005年,世界银行的数据表明,世界上有14亿人口生活在贫困线以下,每日收入低于1

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  • 94

    绿色革命的标志

    虽然绿色革命不是慈善事业,但是它的未来计划很有远见。资本主义贪嗜自然资源,尤其是石油,这让人不愿想象未来:人类永久损毁了自己星球的大气层。这个问题很深刻,所以必须认真对待。艾伯特·戈尔(Albert Gore)的电影《难以忽视的真相》获得了奥斯卡奖,真相和名人同时映入我们的眼帘,他出版的同名书还获得了普利策奖,而他个人在2007年荣获了诺贝尔和平奖。人们可能

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  • 95

    有关资本主义的结束辞

    抛开“制度”这个词的含义不谈,资本主义并不是协调统一的制度。相反,它是一组惯例和体系,允许数十亿人在市场上追求自己的经济利益。国际企业的权力没有完全统一,但是在世界市场上,许多不同的参与者可以充分发挥他们每次行使权利所带来的影响力。在参与市场竞争的所有正当利益中,利用法律漏洞和买家的无知来发横财的机会并非那么有吸引力。因为这些侥幸在没有协调的情况下,可能给资

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  • 96

    索引

    Abbe,Ernst,207-8 abortion,355,378 Acapulco trade,30 Addams,Jane,217 advanced economies,171-72,267,351 Advancement of Learning,The(Bacon),141 advertising,224-25,346,347 TV commercia

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索引

Abbe,Ernst,207-8

abortion,355,378

Acapulco trade,30

Addams,Jane,217

advanced economies,171-72,267,351

Advancement of Learning,The(Bacon),141

advertising,224-25,346,347

TV commercials and,307-8

Afghanistan,425

AFL-CIO,411

Africa,7-10,21,115,229-38,350,424

craftsmen in,145

Dutch in,44

empire building in,229,233-38,240,263,268,420

European missionaries to,230-33,240

immigrants to,210

Portuguese in,8,10,30,34,35,124,237

rubber in,234,237,261

trade in,8,10,34,43,66,124-25,129,420

warfare in,125

African Americans,135,182,263,320

credit and,307

in Roaring Twenties,271

segregation and,137,216,219,300,321,324,388

unions and,219,302,321

voting rights of,215

Afrikaners(Boers),236-37

Agricultural Revolution,13,73-86,137,392

industrialization and,85-86

agriculture,54,56-86,194-95,291,352,420

collective farms,267

description of traditional practices in,60

effects of enclosures on,80-82

famines and,see famines

Great Depression and,277

innovation in,12,13,21,52,64,73-84,116

labor for,5,10,52,54,57,60,63,69,70,75-76,80,86,138-39,167,170,215,245,299,352,390,417

manuals on,76

population growth and,5-6,65-70,72,79,84,255

specialization and,209

subsidies for,367-68,369

World War Ⅰ and,270

see also specific crops

Aid to Families with Dependent Children,322

airlines,308,333,346

airplanes,259,308

air pressure,143,144

Akins,James,327

Alabama,133,151,175,176

Alaska Permanent Fund,430

Albert,Prince,166

Albuquerque,Afonso de,29-30,34

Alembert,Jean Le Rond d’,144

Algeria,210,235,285

Allen,Paul,343-44,348

Alliance for Progress,329

Alsace-Lorraine,173,269,296

alternating current,256

Aluminum Corporation of America,239

Aluminum Corporation of China,239

Amazon,234,261,346-47

Ambani,Mukesh D.,395

Amboina,45

American Federation of Labor(AFL),219,220,221,225-26,302

American International Group(AIG),402,403

American Revolution,53,113,161-62,168,174,189,363

Amsterdam,32,42,46,52,173,188,292

anarchists,212-13,214,220,221

Angola,286

Anhui Province,376

antibiotics,316

anticommunism,286,303-4,338,353

anti-Semitism,173,211,280,283,292

antisubmarine programs,283

antitrust policies,U.S.,218,263,319,341,356

Antwerp,42,129,188

Apple,342-45,349

Arabian Peninsula,oil in,262,326

Arabs,27,34,59,134,145,285,326

slaves of,124,232

sugar growing of,126

trade of,12-13,28

Arawaks,29

architecture,145,246,257,301,308

Arendt,Hannah,241

Argentina,135,194,196,210,214,302,333,351,352,414

aristocracy,169,198,417

consumer culture vs.,223

as contemptuous of commerce,32-33,35-36,46,88

diet of,64

Dutch,45

English,46-47,55,76,78,93,97,103,109,160

French,47,51,113

German,171,186,194,199,214

Japanese(samurai),243,244,245

Portuguese,13,29-30,47

Spanish,13,30,35-36,46,47,97

Aristotle,142,143

Arkwright,Richard,122,150

ARPANET,345

Articles of Confederation,162

artisans,50,59,60,97,103,243

in Netherlands,44,46

artists,art,50,235,246,328

Christian,28

Dutch,44,181

Asia,7-9,14,27,33,36,54,124,134,299,350,415

economic arrival of,398-99

European empire building in,229-30,263,269

financial crisis in(1997),356,380,401,405

asiento,126,130

assembly line,211,257-58,261,266,340

Aswan Dam,315

AT&T(American Telephone and Telegraph Company),314,319,324,341

Atatürk,Mustafa Kemal,269

Atlantic Ocean,8,10,27,31,39,43,64,130,137,239,366,420

Spanish treasure fleets in,30,37,42

World War Ⅱ and,282

atomic bomb,285,304,313

Australia,164,195,296,353,398

immigration to,209,210,282,299

Austria,84,123,165,168,169,172,173,270

Nazi seizure of,280

Austria-Hungary,183,265-68,270

authority,111,114-15,143,174,413

weakening of,79,93,169

automobiles,222,250,257-61,352,421

cost of,258

credit for,306

electric,393,433

gasoline for,204,260,261

in Germany,199,257,258,298,299

in Japan,272,335,337,339-41

rubber for,238,261

strikes and,321

in U.S.,222,250,257-61,337、340,341,359,410-11,414

World War Ⅱ and,298-99

Aztec,28,30,46,100,133,145

B-2 Northrup Grumman “stealth bombers,” 313

B-24 Consolidated “Liberator,” 284

B-29 Boeing “Superfortress,” 281

backward economies,171-72,173,267,293,350

Bacon,Francis,97,141-42

balanced budgets,276-77,278

balance of trade theory,96,103,104,106

Balkans,84,172,432

Baltic countries,42,64,72,84,312

Bangladesh,285,389,392,426-27

Bank of Amsterdam,42

Bank of China,375

Bank of England,92,111-12,113,188,275

Bank of France,188

Bank of the United States,189

bankruptcy,192,275,356,410,416

banks,186-90,318,346,413

Great Depression and,274-75,276

investment,333,403,404,405-6,408

moral hazard and,416

poverty and,426-27

see also specific countries

Barbados,128,130,131

Barnes,Peter,425,429-30

Batavia,45

Beijing:

June Fourth Incident in(1989),372,379

Olympics in,365,383-84

Belgian Congo,235

Belgium,Belgians,46,165,168,172,182,185,254,296

currency of,195

empire building of,229,233-35,240,285

Great Depression in,277

guest workers in,299-300

independence of,42,53

industrialization of,40,53,146,165,212,233

in World War Ⅱ,280,285

Bell,Alexander Graham,255,256

Bell Laboratories,314

Bello,Walden,425,430,431

Bentonville,Ark.,358

Benz,Karl,257,261,298

Berkeley,William,131

Berkman,Alexander,220

Berlin Conference(1884-1885),240,272

Berlin Wall,304

Berners-Lee,Tim,346

Bezos,Jeff,346

Bible,58-59,82,98,104,159

bicycles,238,433

Bill of Rights,English(1689),92

Bill of Rights,U.S.,324

biology:

epigenetics in,22

microscopes and,207

Birmingham,145,147

birth control,23,324,360-61,428-29

Bismarck,Otto von,173,213-14

Blackbeard(Edward Teach),38

Black Death,66,71,84,418

blacks,see African Americans;slaves,slavery;slave trade

Blake,William,152

blood,316

Boers(Afrikaners),236-37

Bollywood,395

Bombay,see Mumbai

bonuses,405,406

bookkeeping,55,69-70

books,93,369

trade in,46,55

Borlaug,Norman,391

Boulton,Matthew,147

Boyle,Robert,97,142,143

Brahmins,388,395

brain drain,391

brand names,224

Braun,Wernher von,311-12

Brazil,30,49,334,374,398,424

abolition of slavery in,124,135,136

Dutch in,44

education in,379

at G20 meetings,414,415

Great Depression and,276

immigration to,210

labor activists in,214

rubber in,237,261

sugar in,31,63,121,127,130

World Trade Organization and,368,369

brazilwood,127,151

bread,57,64

Bretton Woods Conference(1944),291-92,325,367,412

bribery,193,198,375,383,425

BRICs,398,424

see also Brazil;China;India;Russia

Brin,Sergey,347

Bryan,William Jennings,190,196

Bubble Act,192

Buffett,Warren,427

Buick,259,261

building trade,257

Bulgaria,270,290,385

bureaucracy,249,252,253,370

Bureau of Reclamation,U.S.,279

Burke,Edmund,91,93

Burma,282,285,381

Buru Quartet(Pramoedya),247

Bush,George,415

business:

small,252,302

see also corporations;entrepreneurs;firms;specific businesses

Cadillac,259

Cailliau,Robert,346

Calcutta,39,381,394

calendars,245

California,151,196,239,243,326

agriculture in,178

education in,310,311

gold rush in,189,202

immigrants in,189,210

Silicon Valley in,330,334,348,412

Sony plant in,342

California,University of,310,311

call centers,390

cameras,207

Canada,164,165,210,293,296,302,326,413,414

canals,150,172,176,177

Cancún round of trade negotiations,368

Cape Town,236

capital,12,13,24,69,118,178,322,329,368

accumulation of,15,16,229

bank role and,186-87,190

in China,366

cultural,16

defined,6-7

economic choices and,229

human,301

investment,123,173,191,193,350,380-84

in Japan,336,337

patient,380

poverty and,425-26

capitalism:

attitudes and skills required for,54

closing thoughts about,433-36

contemporary,critics of,422-24

as cultural system,4,20-26,119-20

debating the origins of,212-13

definition of,25-26

distinctions of,6-10

eighteenth-century,two faces of,121-62

as juggernaut,286

personal choice and,360-64

puzzle of,3-26

recapitulation of history of,417-22

social ills ascribed to,23-24

start of,118-19

weaknesses of,290-91

see also specific topics

Capitalism 3.0(Barnes),430

Captain Swing demonstrations,153

Caribbean,61-64,133,137,239,420

British soldiers in,136

Columbus’s voyages to,27,30,62,127

emigration from,299,325

privateers and pirates in,37,38

sugar in,63,64,121,125,127,130,161,230

Carnegie,Andrew,201-6,220,248,357

Carnegie Commission on Higher Education,311

Carnegie Steel Company,203,253

Carson,Rachel,328

Cartagena,126,128

cartels,252-53,254,272,341

Cartwright,Edmund,150

caste system,388-89,395,397,398

cathedrals,European,6,16

Catherine Ⅱ(the Great),Empress of Russia,149

Catholicism,17,30,35,42,45,98,117,135,218

science and,13,144

cattle,61,368

CD-ROM(compact disc read-only memory),349

cement,260,276

censorship,92,93,156,383

Central African Republic,58

Central America,133,202,299

Central Europe,55,169

central planning,290,291,375

Cervantes,Miguel de,36,37

Ceylon,34,285

“challenge and response” formula,11

change,329,419,425

in agriculture,71,79

by authority,115

culture and,88

for each generation in China,370-72

economic,15-18

fashion and,103

public receptivity to,14

resistance to,6,35

of work habits,104

see also innovation

Chappe,Claude,183-84

Chappe,Ignace,183-84

charcoal,140

charity,99,275

Charles Ⅴ,King of Spain,35

chemistry,167,199,208,254,255,309,314,419

Chesapeake settlements,37,48

Chiang Kai-shek,282

chief executive officers(CEOs),249,323,405,410

salaries of,411,414

childbirth,182,355,361

children,302,383,416,429

consumption and,223,224

entertainment for,358

nutrition of,363,392

sex ratio of,355,378

see also fertility rates;pregnancies

Chile,208,276,369

China,27,34,49,66,93,133,322,335,360,365-85,387-94,396-99,413,423,424,425,431

agriculture in,368,371,375-76,377,431

automobiles in,374,382

banks in,368,375,380,397

British relations with,229-30,235

calendar and,245

communism in,282,338,354,366,371-72,396-97;see also Communist Party,Chinese

corruption in,383

cotton in,151,165

Cultural Revolution in,371

dependency rate in,378

dramatic change for each generation in,370-72

dual-track system in,375

economic zones in,374-75

education in,379,390-91,397

emigrants from,189,210,218,219,380,424

explorations of,8,9,115

at G20 meetings,414,415

Great Leap Forward in,371

Hong Kong returned to,286,354,375

India compared with,387-88,390-91,393,394,397-98

India’s relations with,381

industrialization in,372,376

investment capital in,380-84

irrigation in,72

Japan compared with,339

Japan’s relations with,245,246,247,282,381

China(continued)

Korea’s relations with,245

marriage in,69

migrants in,377

Olympics in,365

one-child policy in,378,394

population growth in,45,54,72

porcelain of,148,149

press coverage of,383

revolution in,247

Russia compared with,385

savings in,380,382,394,401

science in,9,145

sex ratio in,355,378

silver standard in,54

steel in,334,371

textile industry of,368

Township and Village Enterprise in,376

trade of,9,12-13,45,349,381-82,397

Walmart’s imports from,359

World Trade Organization and,367-70,398

Chittagong University,426

Christianity,49-50,91,159

commercial law and,12

evangelical imperative of,9

feast days and,75,105-6

missionaries,230-33,240

see also specific sects

Chrysler,340,410-11

Chung Ju-yung,352

Churchill,Winston,47,303,304,315

Church of England,117,155

Cities of Salt(Munif),262

Civilian Conservation Corps(CCC),279

civil war,39-42,425

in England,15,39,40-41,51,92,117

Civil War,U.S.,136,151,162,178,203,232,266

cotton shortage and,235

paying for,189-90

U.S. unification and,196

Clarke,Olive Cleaveland,181

Clay,Henry,184

Clemenceau,Georges,296

clerical workers,323-24,390

Clinton,Bill,403

clothiers,95-96,103,139,152-53,379,386

clover,73,74,77

coal,24,26,53,335

in England,51,74,133-34,139,140-41,146,152

in Germany,171,183,194

in U.S.,168,182

Cobbett,William,428

cochineal,151

cocoa,133,420

coffee,10,49,133,140,276

coke,146

Colbert,Jean-Baptiste,114

Cold War,286,303-5,311,321,338,350

China and,372

Collapse(Diamond),412

collective farms,267,376,377

college education,300,309-11

Collier,Paul,424-25

coltan,238

Columbian exchange,28-29

Columbus,Christopher,8,27,28,30,62,125

command economies,267,284,290,366,384,389,431

“commercial capitalism,” 54

commercials,TV,307-8

Committee of European Economic Cooperation,293,295-96

common law,193,216,253

Common Market(European Economic Community),296-97,393

commons,the,430

Common Sense(Paine),19,157,159

communism,213,286,290,293,321

in China,282,338,354,366,371-72,396-97;see also Communist Party,Chinese

containment of,303

Vietnam War and,286

see also Soviet Union

Communist Party,Chinese,366,371,372,374,375,379-80,382-83,387-88,389,397

Compaq,345,349

competition,26,172,176,215,252,254,319,341,409,431-32,435

agriculture and,367

automobiles and,259

Cold War,311

in computer industry,345

cooperation vs.,297

Friedman on,332,333

in oil industry,248-49,261-62

shrinking of,201,250,253,272

warfare and,124,421

computers,313-14,317-20,354,362,422

anxiety about,364

Walmart’s use of,357,358

computers,personal(PCs),342-50

Conan Doyle,Sir Arthur,234-35

concentration camps,208,285,298,299

Concert of Europe,169

Congo,237,238

Congo Free State,233-35,261

Congo River,232,234

Congress,U.S.,177,184,219,239,301,313,367,422

banks and,189

bribing of,193

Cold War and,311,314

corporations and,217,263

labor issues and,301,411

League of Nations and,270,291

Marshall Plan and,293

Native Americans and,196

New Deal and,278,279

tariffs and,203

Congress of Industrial Organizations(CIO),221,302

Congress of Vienna,169

Congress Party,Indian,389

Connecticut Valley,327

Conover,Lloyd,316

Conrad,Joseph,234-35

Conservative Party,British,215

Constitution,U.S.,168,174,175,176,363,435

First Amendment to,302

Fourteenth Amendment to,162,215

Sixteenth Amendment to,215

constitutions:

British,159

Indian,388,396

Japanese,244,246,337-38

consumers,consumption,33,49,246,335,394,415

agricultural,66

in China,382,397

in England,96,102-7

Great Depression and,275

importance of,221-27,420

in India,393,394-95,397

luxury,71,104

mass,258

of oil,326,327

postwar,306-7

of tobacco,48,131

Coolidge,Calvin,197

Cooper,James Fenimore,124

cooperation,295-98,304-5,362,412,414

copper,238-39

corn(maize),60,62,277,367,391

corporations,187,191-94,211,215-18,221,289,317,323

agricultural,209

Barnes on,430

family vs. impersonal,250,254

mergers of,250,262,263

military-industrial complex and,314-15

multinational,334,351,369,370,423

restructuring of,247-55

small business vs.,252

stock of,189

taxes of,300

white-collar jobs in,223

World War Ⅰ and,265

see also firms;specific corporations

corporatist economy,295,341

corruption,383,435

Cortés,Hernando,30

Costco,359

cottagers,76,80,81,139

cotton,3,150-51,178,181,190,277,336,367

in American South,132-33,161,162,175

of India,87,103-4,106,140,151,386

Japan’s export of,244

shortage of,235

cotton gin,132-33,151,168,175

cotton spindles,165

Council of the Indies,127-28

craft unions,214,215,216,219

creative destruction,183,263,330,363,422

credit,42,98,277,394,427

in U.S.,176,190,306,307,404-5

credit cards,306

credit default swaps(CDS),403,409

Crédit Mobilier,188,193

credit rating agencies,407,408

cricket,395

Crompton,Samuel,150-51

Crosby,Alfred,11-12

Crystal Palace Exhibition,166,167

Cuba,30,126,130,135,137,369,431

immigration to,210

independence of,239

Cugnot,Nicholas Joseph,257

cultural capital,16

Cultural Revolution,Chinese,371

cultural superiority,attitudes of,262,263-64,281

culture,22,195

of capitalism,4,20-26,119-20

change and,88

English,165

of everyday life,118

globalization and,360

Curaçao,128,262,325

currency,306

Bretton Woods system and,292,325

English crisis of,107-11

exchange rates for,see exchange rates

Great Depression and,275-76,277

of West Germany,294

see also dollar,U.S.;money

Czechoslovakia,270,280,290

Czech Republic,385

Czolgosz,Leon,220

da Gama,Vasco,28

Daimler,Gottlieb,257,261

Daimler Motors,298

Dalai Lama,381

dams,315

Darby,Abraham,146

Darwin,Charles,68

death rate,decline in,211

De Beers Mining Company,237

Debs,Eugene Ⅴ.,219

debt,277,356,398,407

personal,333,366

World War Ⅰ and,267,270,276

Declaration of Independence,U.S.,157,162,434

Defense Department,U.S.,313,314,315,318,345

Defoe,Daniel,43,90,109

de la Roque,Jean,49

De Leon,Daniel,219

Dell,345,349

Dell,Michael,343

Deming,William Edwards,338

democracy,359,362-63,384,411,433-34

in Four Little Tigers,352,353

in India,366,387,389,397

in Japan,337-38,352

thin vs. living,431

Democracy in America(Tocqueville),180-81

Democratic Party,Japanese,339

Democratic Party,U.S.,196,333,369,405

Deng Xiaoping,372,374-79,383

Denmark,10,128,240

trade of,8,31

wars of,173,184,280

department stores,222,306

dependency theory,351,352,366

depression,economic,95,96,248

of 1873,194-96,202,206,252

see also Great Depression

Derby,Elias Hasket,180

deregulation,333,403

derivative securities,400,404,409

derogation,concept of,47

De Soto,Hernando,425,429,431

developing countries,368,369,370,414

see also specific countries

Diamond,Jared,11,241,412

diamonds,237,425

Dias,Bartolomeu,8,28

Dickens,Charles,369

Dickinson,Levi,179

Diderot,Denis,144

direct current,256

disease,28,65,67,211,267,361,421

in Africa,230,231

bacterial,316

Black Death,66,71,84,418

in India,391

Native Americans’vulnerability to,29,125

DNA,361-62

Doha round of trade negotiations,367-69,398

dollar,U.S.,179,195,197,270,276,292,306,307

Japan’s attachment to,339

plunge in value of,325,331

Don Quixote,36

Drake,Sir Francis,37,38

Drew,Charles,316

drugs,133,229,316,361

Dubai,392,424

Dunlop,John,238

du Pont,Eleuthère Irénée,241

du Pont,Pierre,251

DuPont Company,249,251

Durant,William,259

Dutch East India Company,44,45,52,236

Dutch East Indies,World War Ⅱ and,282,285

Dutch West India Company,44,128

DVDs,345,368

dyes,127,151,254,255

East Asian NICs(newly industrialized countries),see Four Little Tigers

Eastern Europe,7,126,184,211,303,366,390,431

agriculture in,209,270

postwar,286,287,293

serfs in,71

shock without therapy in,384-85

East Germany,294,304,354

East Indies,8,21,61

trade in,3,27,28,29,31,34,38-39,54,63,415,417

World War Ⅱ and,282,283

ecology,315

economic development,169,198,212,306,418,428

in China,366-67,373-74,379-83,389,399

consumption and,104,105

food prices as limit on,70-72

in Four Little Tigers,350,352-55

in Germany,167,170-74,185,199

in India,366-67,394,399

of Japan,335

slavery and,136

Smith on,212-95

in U.S.,174-81,189,199

economic man,332

economic reasoning,100

economics:

change and analysis in,15-18

as profession,118

economies of agglomeration,146

Edison,Thomas Alva,255-56

education,9,214,243,249,379,438

in China,379,390-91,397

engineering,185,254

in Germany,254,255

in India,379,391,392

in U.S.,300,309-11,313,322

Egypt,34,151,196,326,429

nationalism in,236,268

Egypt,ancient,124

Eisenhower,Dwight,314,414

elasticity of demand,103-4,106

electrical engineering,254-55

electrical equipment,223,254,255

electricity,4,167,199,207,227,254-57,307,335,419,421

automobiles and,393,433

dams and,315

transistor and,330

electronics,298,307,314,319

in the Four Little Tigers,354

in Japan,342,345,349

Walmart’s use of,358

elevators,257

Elizabeth Ⅰ,Queen of England,35,37,99

Ellis Island,210,211

e-mail,347,349

embargoes,282,327

empire building,228-30,233-42

Berlin Conference and,240,271

empiricism,97

Employee Free Choice Act(EFCA),411

employers,419,420

employment:

full or near-full,331

government,278,279

lifetime,341

enclosures,80-82,89

encomiendas,31

encyclopedia,144

energy,74,122,147

see also coal;fossil fuels;oil;waterpower Energy Department,U.S.,361

engineering,engineers,185,309,313,318,319,330,342,379

electrical,254-55

in India,386,391

engineering schools,185,254

engines,122

internal-combustion,257,261

steam,4,33,144-48,150,165

England,7-16,37-43,74-118,128-69,242,362,417-18

advanced vs. backward economies and,171,172

agriculture in,12,15,57,61,68,71,74-85,114-15,138-39,143,170,195,245,352,392,417

author in,20

banks in,92,111-12,113,173,188,275

canal building in,150

civil war in,15,39,40-41,51,92,117

clothiers in,95-96,103,139,152-53,379,386

copying of,21,120

currency crisis in,107-11

Dutch as model for,99-101

enclosures in,80-82,89

Enlightenment in,156-59

horses in,67,74

immigration to,299

in India,39,45,103,164,281,326,385-89,391,396

industrialization in,74,104,137-41,145-56,163-66,187-88,215,417,418

law in,47,57,82,106,115,117,118,153,154,192,193,253

mercantilism in,96-97,101,103,104,106,107,116

monopolies granted in,40,41,51

navy of,51,113,132,137

new economic discourse in,89-94,96,102

in New World,9,10,37,39,48,50,63,79,117,128-38,140

plain features of,11

Poor Laws in,82,154

population growth in,84,139,165

pottery making in,148-50

privateers and pirates of,37-39

risk management in,187

scientific revolution in,141-45

slave trade of,121,124,126,129-30

textile industry in,150-53,160,165,175,182,198,336

textiles imported by,87,103-6

trade of,28,31,34,35,38-41,45-48,50-51,64,95-96,105,112,113,123,124,138,139,164,305

as trailblazer,10-15

trust in,118

villages abandoned in,66

wars of,37,52,111,113,123-24,208,265-68,270

English East India Company,39,87,94,96-97,102-6,229,386

engravings,29

ENIAC,313

Enlightenment,144,156-62,169,241,328,434

entertainment,256,271,307,358,360,365

in India,395

entrepreneurs,115-16,134,198-208,295,335

black,216

British,192,198

French,129

German,200-202,206-8

kings and statesmen as,229,233-35

risk taking of,248

U.S.,192,199-206,216,317

environment,333

damage to,315,328,330,339,392,422,423,432

protection of,370

environmentalists,315,328

epigenetics,22

equality,134-35,169,241,434

Equal Pay Act(1963),324

espionage,industrial,164-65,228

Essar Group,393

Essay on Population(Malthus),67-68

Estates-General,156

Ethiopia,49,126,236,273

Europe,27,54,303,334,363,381,394,413

consumer culture in,223

labor activists in,213-15

population growth in,211

Europe,Western,7-17,21,287,303,304,375,378,387,418

Asia compared with,14

corporatist economy in,295,341

Great Divergence in,12-15

IWA in,213

Japan compared with,335

postwar,293-300,325,329,350,421

quantitative understanding in,12

trade dominated by,34-39

European Coal and Steel Community(ECSC),296

European Economic Community(Common Market),296-97,393

European Organization for Nuclear Research,346

European Payment Union,296,306

European Recovery Program,293

European Union,297,367-70,385,398

exchange rates,90,96,375

fixed,195,196

floating,325-26,331,375

exploitation,10,23-24,133,135,229,351

in China,397

labor,370

oil and,262

see also slaves,slavery;slave trade

exploration,8-10,13,21,30,36,54,61

by China,8,9,115

Explorer Ⅰ,309,310

Fabian Society,215

factories,420

appearance of,148-50,152-55

assembly lines in,211,257-58,261,266

environmental effects of,333

failed states,424-25

famines,5-6,23,28,56-59,67,71,431

in Asia,45,371,426,428,431

in Europe,6,51,56,57,62,66,69,83,85,153,418

present-day,58,86

Farnsworth,Philo,307

fascism,272-73,280,293

Federal Aviation Administration,308

Federal Highways Acts,301

Federalists,176

Federal Reserve,325,332

Federal Reserve Banks,190,404-5,410

Federal Steel,253

fertility rates,23,209,211,271,325,361,378,391

fertilizer,73,74,208,392

financial services,dominance of,413

firms,248-54,301,362

bureaucracy and,249,252

as defense contractors,284

in Japan,272,341

use of term,248

First World,350-51,423

Fleming,Alexander,316

Florence,4-5,32

flyboats,43,52,100

Focus on the Global South,431

food,3,56-86,94,105,113-14,153,209,291

New World,27,28-29,54,60-64

preservation of,42,56,60,63,130

spices and,28

U.S. production of,174,177

see also agriculture;specific foods

Food First,430-31

food prices,51,57,64,65,69-72,79,82,84,116,182,368,369,417,431

economic development limited by,70-72

in France,85

grain,70,71,72,77,194-95,209,431

India and,392,393

Ford,Henry,257-59,319,357,411

Model A and T of,258-59,261,337

Ford dealerships,258-59

Ford Foundation,391-92

Fordism,258

Ford Motor Company,257-59,284,298,337,340,393,410,411

Forest Service,U.S.,279

fossil fuels,123,140-41,147,208,264,422

see also coal;oil

Four Little Tigers,334,350,352-56,366,369

see also Hong Kong;Singapore;South Korea;Taiwan

France,49-52,172,182,193,199,358,412,414,424,433

agriculture in,51,52,84-85,114-15,129,195

automobiles in,257,258,298

banks in,112,173,188

British rivalry with,138

colonial wars of,285,286

commercial capitalism and,54

computers in,344-45

copying England and,21,120

currency of,195

emigrants from,189,210

empire building and,229,234,235,236,240,242,245,268,285,420

Enlightenment in,144,156-57

in German occupation,294

Great Depression in,277

guest workers in,299-300

indicative path and,289

industrial espionage of,165

industrialization in,51,52,144,146,212,418

in New World,9,10,50,63,112,128-29,136,235

physiocracy in,114-15

population growth in,79,80,84

postwar,289,290,296,299-300,325

pottery making in,148

privateers and pirates of,37,38-39

railroads in,183,185

science in,142

single mothers in,361

slavery abolished by,136

slave trade of,121,129

socialists in,289

syndicalists in,212

taxes in,51,85,112-15

trade of,8,28,31,34,35,38-39,47,49,64,85,123,124,138,305

transportation problems in,51,84,129,173,305

wars of,52,111,123-24,168-69,173

World Trade Organization and,370

World War Ⅰ and,265-70,276,296

World War Ⅱ and,280,281,283,285,316

Franco,Francisco,293

Franco-Prussian War(1870-1871),173,196,235,266,269

Frank,Andrew Gunder,351

Frank,Barney,414

Franklin,Benjamin,144

freedom,160,161-62,278,304,418,429

of expression,93

political,420

sexual,260,361

free enterprise,24-25,122,131,176,194,246,267,291

democracy and,366

ethic of pleasure and,416

optimism and,273

freeholders(yeomen),57,71,76,82

free trade,107,164,169,176,254,270,305,367,368

French East India Company,49

French Revolution,52,67,156-57,168,169,174,241,434

Frick,Henry Clay,220

Friedman,Milton,332-33,351

Friedman,Rose,332

Friedman,Thomas,415

Fujitsu,349

G7 countries,414

G20 countries,414-15

Gabilondo,Iñaki,94

Galileo Galilei,97,141,142,143

Gandhi,Mahatma,387,396,397,398

gasoline,204,260,261,326

gas stations,260

Gates,Bill,202,203,343-44,348,427

genenomics,362

General Agreement of Tariffs and Trade(GATT),292,367

General Electric,342,409

General Motors(GM),250,251,259,284,298,321,337,340,341,414

decline of,410-11

in India,393

Genoa,8,32,292

Georgia,151,175

Germany,Germans,120,167-74,198-202,286,335,414,415,424

agriculture in,164,170-71,208,255,292

Allied occupation of,294

automobiles in,199,257,258,298,299

banks in,173,186,187-88

computers in,344-45

corporations in,193-94,252-55

currency of,195

depression in,196

economic development in,167,170-74,185,199

education in,214,254,255

emigrants from,174,210,211

empire building and,229,234-37,240,268,420

Great Britain compared with,199,248,255

Great Depression in,277,298

hyperinflation in,270

industrial espionage of,165

industrialization in,146,164,165,173,199,212,215,255,265-66,418

labor activists in,213-14

leviathans of industry in,200-202,206-8

nationalism in,168-73,185,199

Nazi,see Nazis

population growth in,65,80,84,255

postwar,290,292,294,295,325

Río Tinto mines and,238-39

science in,63,142,207,208,311-13,315-16

technology in,182-85

trade of,138

transportation in,172-73,183,185,194,199

U.S. compared with,167-68,172,181,198,213,255

wars of,65,172,173,184,208,255,276

in World War Ⅰ,265-70,276,283

in World War Ⅱ,280-81,283-85

GI Bill,300,303,310

Gilbert,W.S.,246

Gilded Era,202,217

Glass-Steagall Act(1933),402

globalization(global economy),4,7,23,194,415,423,435

China and,335,382,383,425

Great Depression and,273

India and,335,387,425

recession of 2008-2009 and,400,407,413

supranationalism and,370

U.S. labor and,360

global warming,432

God,17,18,58,125,184-85,220

Goddard,Robert,311-12

Goebbels,Joseph,312

gold,45,48,63,71,131,270

of England,102-3

of Portugal,8,34

of Spain,27,28,30,37,38,100

of U.S.,168,189,203

value of,107-10,195

Golden Rule,99

Goldman,Emma,220

Goldman Sachs,408

gold standard,189,195,196,267

demise of,275-76,325

Gompers,Samuel,219,225-26

Good Hope,Cape of,8,28,29,44,49

Good Housekeeping,224

Goodyear,Charles,238

Google,347,383

Gore,Albert,432

government,14,288-89,297,331-33

agricultural improvement and,76

in communism,213

creation of,109

Friedman on,332,333

government(continued)

Keynes on,277,278,331-33

Locke on,109,110

poverty and,429

government regulation,24,55,59,216-17,263,333,401,409

Graduate,The(movie),309

grain,5,15,57-60,62,64,65-66,70-75,81,84,181

Dutch shipping of,42,43

in France,51,84,85,115

India’s importing of,392-93

price of,70,71,72,77,194-95,209,431

see also rice;wheat

Grameen Bank,426-27,431

Gramm-Leach-Bliley Financial Service Modernization Act(1999),403,409

gravity,Newton’s work on,97,101,122,142-43

Great Britain,113,122,182-85,198,200,207,335,412,414

automobiles in,258

banks in,390

computers in,344-45

in Concert of Europe,169

constitution of,159

corporations in,192

emigrants from,189,210

empire building and,229-30,234-37,240,268,285,286,354,385-87,420

free trade policy of,164,254

Friedman’s influence in,332

in German occupation,294,298

Germany compared with,199,248,255

gold standard in,195

Great Depression in,275-76,277

in Hong Kong,230,235,245

indicative path and,289

Industrial Revolution in,137-41,145-56,163-67,187-88,212,215

Japan compared with,336,338

Japan’s relations with,242,245

labor activists in,213,214

oil industry of,262

postwar,289,290,299,325

radios in,271

Río Tinto mines and,238-39

rubber plantations of,261

slavery abolished by,136,137

socialists in,289

U.S. compared with,167,199,248

use of term,91

wealth in,91

World War Ⅰ and,265-68,270,276

World War Ⅱ and,279,280-83,285

see also England;Scotland

Great Depression,253,273-80,283,298,301,302,318,331,367,402,414,421

causes of,274,279

New Deal and,278-79

weaknesses of capitalism exposed by,290-91

Great Divergence,12-15

Greater Antilles,125-26

Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere,281,282,337

Great Leap Forward,371

Greece,295,424

emigration from,210,211

guest workers from,299-300

Truman Doctrine and,303

Greece,ancient,124,159

greed,23,408-9,422

Greenland,240

Green Revolution,392,432-33

Greenspan,Alan,408,422

G-type automatic loom,336

Guangzhou,375

guest workers,299-300,325

guilds,36,42,55,59,171

guns,234,237

gutta-percha,207

Haber,Fritz,208

Haiti,130,133

Hamilton,Alexander,174,176

Hapsburg Empire,39-40,42,45

Harding,Chester,181

Hargreaves,James,150

Harrington,Michael,328

Haymarket Square riot,218-19

Haywood,Big Bill,219

health,health care,211,315-16,321,392,411,421

in China,378,397

hedge funds,400,405,407,408,409

Helsinki Accord,286,361

Hemings,Elizabeth,175

Henry the Navigator,Prince,8,10

Henry Ⅷ,King of England,99

herring,42,43,52,64,73,99,128

Hershey Company,415

Hill,Joe,219

Hinduism,Hindus,286,396

caste system and,388-89,395,397

Hitachi,342,349

Hitler,Adolf,258,280,281,290,292,298,299

Hobbes,Thomas,19

Ho Chi Minh,268

Hohenzollern dynasty,173

Holland,see Amsterdam;Netherlands

Holy Roman Empire,168-69,171

Home Depot,359

Honda,339-40,393,410

Hong Kong,282,334-35,350,352-55,358,380,384,402

British in,230,235,245,286,354,375

Hoover,Herbert,275

Hoovervilles,275

horse power,147

horses,61,67,74,147

House of Commons,English,47,117,130,156

House of Lords,English,117

houses,housing,301,302,306,324,333,404,433

price of,400,405,407,408,410

see also mortgages

Hu Jintao,415

Human Genome Project,361-62

human nature,4,17,91,102,107,362-63,420

definitions of,19

Smith’s opinions about,19-20

human rights,161,216,361,396,420

Hume,David,112

Hungary,84,173,210,270,290,385

hydrogen bomb,304

hyphenated Americans,212,221

Hyundai,352

IBM(International Business Machines),315,317-20,341,415-16

personal computers and,343-45,349,350

Iceland,402

ICICI,427

Illinois,University of,346

immigration,immigrants,86,174,209-12,215,282,299,320,419-20,423

to California,189,210

illegal,219,323

quotas for,221

remittances sent home by,325,392,424

unions and,218,221,302

U.S. living conditions of,217,218

to Western Europe,299

imperative path,289,290

import substitution,276,351,353

Inca,28,30,46,100,145

income,84,85,330,335,352,367,374,422

agricultural,78,392

disposable,71,360

fixed,332

see also wages

income tax,263,300,322

Inconvenient Truth,An(movie),432

incorporation:

benefits of,191-94

as shared asset,430

see also corporations

indentured servants,50,128,131

India,21,49,207,235,237,335,366-70,385-99,414,423,425,431

abortion in,355

agriculture in,368,390-93

automobiles in,393

banks in,394,413,427

as BRIC,398,424

call centers in,390

castes in,388-89,395,397,398

China compared with,387-88,390-91,393,394,397-98

China’s relations with,381

consumers in,393,394-95,397

India(continued)

cottons of,87,103-4,106,140,151,386

dams in,315

democracy in,366,387,389,397

education in,379,391,392

emigrants from,210,392,424

English in,39,45,103,164,281,326,385-89,391,396

food imports of,392-93

Great Depression and,276

independence of,285,387,389,396

marriage in,69

modernization of,389-94

Muslims in,27,389,396

nationalists in,268,387

opium in,229

Point Four program in,293,329

Portuguese in,8,30

Russia compared with,385

sugar in,126

trade of,28,397

transportation in,392,393

urban renewal in,394

World Trade Organization and,367-70,398

Indian Appropriation Act(1871),196

Indian National Congress(INC),387

Indian Ocean,27,38,39,242,381

China in,8

Portuguese in,27,30,34,52

indicative path,289-90

indigo,132,151

Indochina:

French,235,268,285,286

Japanese in,285,382

Indonesia,39,355,381

industrial espionage,164-65,228

Industrial Evolution,137-38

Industrial Revolution,11,13,24,137-41,145-56,163-67

Luddites and,152,153

Industrial Workers of the World(IWW;Wobblies),219-21

industry,industrialization,4,11-14,16,23,68,69,118,212-13,418-19

Agricultural Revolution and,85-86

appearance of factories and,148-50,152-55,160

culture and,165,167

as human goal,166

inventions and,137-41,145-47,152-53,161

leviathans of,200-208

resistance to,152-54

scope of,255-59

sequence of,335

inequality,363,392,417,434

inflation,46,71,72,112,326,328,331,332

after World War Ⅰ,270

information technology(IT),348-49,357,360,382

see also computers;computers,personal;Internet

informative path,289,290-91

innovation,4,7,11-14,16,25,87-89,295,363,434

agricultural,12,13,21,52,64,73-84,116

Dutch,40,53,73-75

in England,11,12,75-78,87,92,94,115,120,137-41,145-47,199

in Germany,167,183,199,207-8,254-55

industrial,137-41,145-47,155-56,254-57

in U.S.,167,179-80,183,199,255-59,307-9,313-20

Institute for Liberty and Democracy,429

insurance companies,187,260,318,403

integrated circuit,343,347-48

Intel,330,343,344,349

intellectual property rights,368-69

interchangeability of participants,198

interchangeable parts,179

intercontinental ballistic missile system,304

interest rates,42,113,401-2,404,405,426

Dutch,100,101

usury and,98-101

internal combustion machines,167

Internal Revenue Service,300

International Association of the Congo,234

International Center for Maize and Wheat Improvement,391

International Monetary Fund,292,351,356,368,384

International Rice Research Institute,391

International Telephone and Telegraph,249

International Workingmen’s Association(IWA;First International),213

Internet,345-47,349,415,423,427,435

Internet Explorer,346

Interstate Commerce Commission,263

investment,186-93,292,325,334,335,353,368

capital for,123,173,191,193,350,380-84

in Germany,173,198

in Japan,336

in U.S.,176,186,190,195-96,198,331,412

investment banking,333,403,404,405-6,408

invisible hand,91,205

iPods,342,348,349

Ireland,62,153,295,390

emigration from,62,211

iron,51,53,146,296,335,353

in Germany,169,171,173,183,185,194,201,254

in U.S.,168,182

iron curtain,303,304

irrigation,72,315,392

Irving,Washington,197

Islam,Muslims,6,27-28,36,50,135,187

in India,27,389,396

oil weapon of,326

Spain vs.,35,36-37

trade of,27,39,232

Turkey and,269

usury and,99

Israel,299,326

Italy,Italians,126,142,290,296,414

agriculture in,84

computers in,344-45

emigrants from,210

empire building of,229,236,273,285,420

fascism in,272-73,280

Great Depression in,277

guest workers from,299-300

immigrants to,423-24

industrialization in,146,165

population growth in,80

railroads in,183

socialists in,289

trade of,8,39,47,64

wars of,123,281,285

see also specific city states

ivory,232,309,425

Jackson,Andrew,189

Jamaica,37,130,137

James,Henry,Sr.,197

James Ⅰ,King of England,40,99

Jamestown,Va.,48

Japan,7,242-48,303,358,361,363,394,398,414

agriculture in,243,244,245,338

Asian financial crisis and,356

automobiles in,272,335,337,339-41

banks in,244-45,356

China’s relations with,245,246,247,282,381

Christian converts in,28

closing of,242

Cold War and,338

computers in,345,349,350

constitution of,244,246,337-38

democracy in,337-38,352

economic power of,334-42,356,369

emigrants from,210

empire building of,272,281-82,337,371

Four Little Tigers and,353,354

Great Depression and,276

industrialization in,165,244,335-38

jury system in,116-17

Meiji Restoration in,242-47,375

postwar,296,325,421

recession in,333,356,402,410

textile industry in,244,336

trade of,34,45,244

U.S. occupation of,337-38,339

in World War Ⅰ,267,272,336

in World War Ⅱ,281-83,285,304,337

Java,44,45,49,210

Jefferson,Thomas,175,176-77,190,216

Jervis,John,182

Jesus Christ,98

Jews,46,98,283,292,299

emigration of,211,218

German,173,280

trade of,12-13

Jobs,Steven,343

John Deere,393

Johnson,Lyndon,322,325,328

Johnson,Samuel,90-91,116

joint-stock trading companies,47,106,115,187

in Japan,335,341

Jones,“Mother,” 219

June Fourth Incident(1989),372,379

Jungle,The(Sinclair),217

Junkers,171,194,199,214

Justice Department,U.S.,319

just-in-time productive system,340

just-in-time restocking systems,357

Kagoshima,British bombing of,242

Kaiser,Henry,284

Kelley,Florence,217

Kennedy,John,324,325

Kenya,286

Kerala,392

kerosene,204,261,323

kerosene cans,262

Kerr,Clark,310,311

Keynes,John Maynard,277-78,279,291,331-32,333,421

Keynesian economics,277-78,279,288-89,301,331-32,333,422

Kidd,William,38

King,Gregory,82

King Goes,the Generals Remain,The(Plivier),269

Kipling,Rudyard,281

Knights of Labor,218-19

Korea,245,246,282

see also North Korea;South Korea Korean War,338,339,340,352-53

Krupp,201,265

Krupp,Alfred,201

labor,12,23,24,33

activism of,212-21;see also labor unions;specific unions

in Africa,234

agricultural,see agriculture,labor for cheap,334,360,370,390

division of,15,25,63-64,144,194,257

firing of,94-95

as guest workers,299-300,325

industrial,149,154,160,167,187,211,215,257

international standards for,360

Native Americans as,10,30,31,125

regularization of work habits of,104,105-6,123 scientific management of,258

shortage of,299

suppression of,116

surplus value of,16

see also indentured servants;slaves,slavery

labor unions,214-21,301-2,320-25,359-60,411-12

consumption and,225-26

craft,214,215,216,219

in Europe,212,272,295 in Japan,341

Taft-Hartley Act and,322-23

Wagner Act and,279,301,322

World Trade Organization and,370

Labour Party,British,215,289

Lal,Deepal,12

land,50,76,101,113-14,322

in China,376,377,397

De Soto on,429,431

in Germany,170,171

in India,392,393,396

in Japan,245,338

in U.S.,176,177,178,183,197,215,320

Landes,David,11

landlords,46,58,63,65,70,75-79

absentee,130,136,153

discrimination and,324

in England,41,57,71,76-79,81,110,111,153

in France,71-72,85

in Germany,170

in Japan,245

land reform,338,352

Lappé,Frances Moore,425,430-31

Las Casas,Bartolomé de,126

Last of the Mohicans,The(Cooper),124

Latin America,229,269,308,325,350,351,391,427

Alliance for Progress and,329

immigration to,210

labor unrest in,214

recession of 2008-2009 and,412-13

Law,John,112

law,legal system,12,60,95,416-17,420,430

canon,69,98

English,47,57,82,106,115,117,118,153,154,192,193,253

French,193 German,193

U.S.,192,193,216,218,225,253,319,333

League of Nations,269-70,273,282,291,296,304

lean production,340,356

Lee,Rev. Joseph,82,89

Lee Kua Yew,354

Leeward Islands,128

Lehman Brothers,402

Lenin,Ⅴ.Ⅰ.,258

Leopold Ⅱ,King of Belgium,233-36,261

Lepanto,battle of(1571),36-37

Lesser Antilles,128

letters of marque,37

leveraging,404,406

Levitt,William,301

Levittown,N.Y.,301

Lewis,John L.,302

LG Electronics,342,393

Liberal Democratic Party,Japanese(LDP),339

Liberal Party,British,215

Liberia,236

liberty,91,134-35,157,169,241,434

Library of Congress,268

License Raj,390

Liebig,Justus von,208

life expectancy,181-82,211,363,378,392,421,432

limited liability companies,192,193

Lincoln,Abraham,428

Lindbergh,Charles,308

liquidity preference,278

Lisbon,slaves in,66,124,127

literacy,46,76,214,215,392

Liverpool,slave trade in,129,130

livestock,60,63,65-66,71,73

Livingstone,David,230-33,240

Locke,John,19,90,109,110,157

London,38,48,69-70,144,145,163,173,213,292,395,402

as emporium,41,149

growth of,86,91-92,104,139-40

stock exchange in,188

sugar refining in,129

Long-Term Capital Management,401

Loomis,Mahlon,256

looms,150,336-37

Louisiana,112,133,176

Louisiana Purchase,197

Louis XIV,King of France,50,51,79,114

Lud,Ned,152

Luddites,152,153

Lula da Silva,Luis Inácio,415

Luxembourg,296

Maastricht Treaty(1992),297

MacArthur,Douglas,337-38

McCormick,Cyrus,209

McKinley,William,220

Madeira,62,126,127

Madison,James,435

Madoff,Bernard,413

Madrid,61,94,233

Magellan,Ferdinand,8,30,31

mail-order retailing,222

Malabar Coast,28,34

Malacca,29,34

malaria,230,231,316,391

Malay Archipelago,27,34,44

Malaysia,237,247,261,285,354,355

malls,306,324

malnutrition,83,392

Malthus,Thomas Robert,67-68,208-9,428

management,managers,262,263,320,321,323,336

in China,374

in Japan,340,341

scientific,258

separation of ownership from,249,252

managerial capitalism,251

Manchester,133,145,151

Manchuria,210,424

Japan in,281,371

Russia in,245-46

Manila,30,31,54

manufacturing,5,59,214,223,256,334,351,352,393

in China,352,382

English,97,106

food costs and,70,71

French,85,114-15

Great Depression and,275,276,278

Japanese,338,340

U.S.,210,323,334

Maoris,241

Mao Zedong,371-72,375,396-97,398

Marconi,Guglielmo,256

Marianas,29,235

market share,250,253

marriage,135,302

age at,59,69,139

Marshall,George C.,293

Marshall,James,189

Marshall,John,176

Marshall Plan,293-95,306,329

Marx,Karl,16-18,79,213,225,267,425

Marxism,77-78,213,214,225,290

Mary Ⅱ,Queen of England,111,117

Maryland,162,175

Massachusetts,348

Massachusetts Institute of Technology,310,313

mass production,262,284

of automobiles,257-58,298,337,340

of houses,301

labor unions and,302

Master Plan for Higher Education,310

matching funds,205

Matsushita,342

Maxim,Hiram,237

Maxwell,James Clerk,256

Maya,145

Mayawati,Kumari,388-89

Maybach,Wilhelm,257

meat,60,64

Meat Inspection Act(1906),217

meat-packing plants,217

medical experiments,Nazi,315-16

Mediterranean Sea,31,38,126,236,366

Meiji Restoration,242-47,375

Mendelssohn family,173

mercantilism,96-97,101,107,116

balance of trade theory and,96,103,104,106

Mercedes-Benz,298

Mercer,John,156

merchants,29,33,55,59,60,70,88,107,229,417

Arab,126

Chinese,9

Dutch,41,44,45,46,53,64,73,99

English,41,46,47,95,101,106,110,115,117,140,153

in English colonies,130

French,46,114

Indian,395,397

Italian,126

Japanese,244

Portuguese,8,13,127

prejudices against,31-32

privateers and pirates vs.,37,38

Spanish,13,97

trust and,117

U.S.,180

mergers,250,262,263

Mesta,36

Mexican-American War,189,197,243

Mexico,28,30,151,165,230,325,334,352,360,391,414

cactus leaves in,238

Great Depression and,276

microlending in,427

oil of,326

Mickey Mouse,358

microprocessors,261

microscopes,207,208

Microsoft,343-44,346,348,349,350

Middle Ages,11,21,56

middle class,44,70,88,171,244

U.S.,88,178-79,216,217,221,222,258,323,334,359

Middle East,21,49,238,268,269,413

irrigation in,72

oil in,262,326

Midway Island,239,245

Mikado,The(Gilbert and Sullivan),246

military-industrial complex,314-15

military research,311-14

Mill,John Stuart,112

Ming dynasty,8,9,49,115

mining,mines,28,62,76,100,101,140,154,230,335

labor for,10,30,133-34

pumping water from,145,146

Río Tinto,238-39

missionaries,230-33,240

Missionary Travels and Researches in South Africa(Livingstone),231

Mississippi,133,151,175,176

Mississippi Bubble,112

Mississippi Company,112

Mitsubishi,342

Mitsubishi family,335-36

Mitsui family,335-36

modernization,328-29,335,350,351

in China,371,375

in India,389-94

molasses,130,133

mole plow,153

monarchy,95,117,263,417

English,15

French,50,51,114-15,129,156

Monet,Jean,296,297

monetary theory,330,332,351

money,3,17,18,31,32,70-71,92,107-14,408,417

biblical view of,98

capital vs.,6-7

Carnegie on,204

consumer culture and,223-24

definition of,110

Dutch devotion to,43

empire building and,228-30

English views on,90,91,96,97

Great Depression and,274-75,278

paper,111,112,270

postwar prosperity and,324-25

saving of,66,274,278

in U.S.,176,189-90

usury and,98-99

see also currency

Mongols,27

monopolies,63,129,356

Dutch,44,45

English granting of,40,41,51

oil,204-5,248

Montgomery Ward,222

Moody’s,407

Moore,Gordon,343,347

Moore,Michael,410

Moore,Rev. John,81-82,89

moral hazard,416

morality,7,17,25,58,89,95,133,434

community farming and,81

usury and,98,99

Morgan,Henry,37-38

Morgan,J. P.,203,220,251

Morgan Stanley,408

Morocco,126,235

Morse,Samuel,184

mortgages,301,333,382

subprime,400,401,403-10,412,414,433,435

Motorola,348,393,395

movies,256,271,307,309,358,360

in India,395

Mozambique,35,237,286

Mozilla Firefox,346

MS-DOS,343,344

mulattoes,134,135

Mumbai(formerly Bombay),39,389,395

Mun,Thomas,96-97,102

Munif,Abdelrahman,262

music,333,346,368

Mussolini,Benito,272-73,280,281

Nader,Ralph,328,404

Naoroji,Dadabhai,386-87

Napoleon I,Emperor of France,93,153,163,168-69,188,236,241,255

Napoleonic Wars,168-69,236,241,255

NASDAQ stock market,348

National Assembly,French,156

National Cash Register,323

National Institutes of Health,U.S.,361

nationalism,168-73,268,297

in Egypt,236,268

German,168-73,185,199

in India,268,387

in Italy,272

U.S.,168,196,199

Nationalist Party,Chinese,354,371,396

National Labor Relations Act(1935),301

National Park Service,U.S.,279

National Recovery Act(NRA)(1933),253,278-79,318

Native Americans,21,61,133,134,135

as labor,10,30,31,125,127

in U.S.,177,196,239

vulnerability to disease of,29,125,234

natural liberty,91,157

Natural Resources Defense Action Fund,432

nature,328

Aristotle on,142,143

Bacon on,97,142

loss of subservience to,79

Newton on,144

Navigation Laws,English,138

Nazis,208,280-81,283-85,295,298

IBM Cards and,318

science and,312-13

NEC,349

Nehru,Jawaharlal,315,396

Nehru,Pandit,390

Netherlands,the Dutch,7-10,37-46,49,52-54,168,172,254,269,296,325

agriculture in,42,53,68,71-75,84,138-39,170

art in,44,181

banks in,42,99-100,112,173

currency of,195

devotion to home in,44

as economic model,42-46,99-101

economic plateau in,52-54

as financiers,13,42,53

Great Depression in,277

independence of,35,39,41-42,45,52,73

industrialization in,53,146

as intellectual center,46,93

in New World,9,10,39,43,44,50,63,128,129

oil industry of,262

population growth in,80,84

privateers and pirates of,37,38-39,128

science in,142,144

slavery abolished by,136

slave trade of,8,10,30,66,121,128,129,131

trade of,28,31,34,35,38-39,41-44,52,53,64,74,138

wars of,44-45,52,123

wealth of,39-40,52

World War Ⅱ and,280,285

worldwide dominance and influence of,240,242,245,268

Netscape,346

networks,computer,345-46

New Basis of Civilization(Patten),226

Newcomen,Thomas,122,141,145-46

New Deal,136,278-79,290,321-22

New Jersey,250,252,327

New Netherlands,128

newspapers,174,177,280

Newton,Isaac,90,97,101,109,122,142-45,157,158

New World,9-10,27-31,54,121-33,417

discovery of,12,54

Dutch in,9,10,39,43,44,50,63,128,129

European wars and,123,124

foods of,27,28-29,54,60-64

immigration to,62

plantations of,10,31,48,50,63,64,420

New York,N.Y.,38,162,188,189,194,263,292,390,402

immigration to,210,211

railroads in,202

World Trade Towers in,364

New York(state),130,310

New York Central Railroad,186,201

New York Herald,232

New York Stock Exchange,271

New York Times,206,322

New Zealand,353

immigration to,209,210,299

Niagara Falls,256

Nicaragua,202,325

Nile River,232,315

Nissan,272,337,339-40,393,410

nitrates,238

nitrogen,for soil,73,74

Nixon,Richard,325,327,372

Nobel family,261-62

Nokia,395

North,American,160-61,174-75,196,323

North Africa,27,29,285

guest workers from,299-300

North America,7,21,29,31,54,125,420

immigration to,86,209,210,424

population growth in,79

rights in,117

North Korea,338,352

North Sea,43,52,100

Norway,211,280

Noyce,Robert,343

nuclear power,432-33

Obama,Barack,410,433

Oberth,Hermann,311,312

O’Connor,Sandra Day,323-24

Office of the Comptroller of the Currency,U.S.,401

Ohio,178,204,248,401,409

oil,24,26,238,261-62,273,326-28,425

of China,381

crisis of 1973 and,326-28

Japan’s need for,282

price of,325,326,327,331,340,422,432

shortages of,368

sugar compared with,121

in U.S.,168,201,204-5,211,217-18,248-51,326

Oil Trust,248

Olds,Ransom,257,261

Oldsmobile,257,259

Olympics,365,383-84

opium trade,229

optics,255

optimism,273,401

organizational charts,249,319

Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development,296

Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries(OPEC),326-27,422

Orinoco tobacco,48

Ormuz,30,34

Other America,The(Harrington),328

Otto,Nikolaus,298

Ottoman Empire,34-37,39,49-50,172,236

World War Ⅰ and,265-69

outsourcing,95,140,334,390

Owen Falls,315

Pacific Ocean,239,242-43,366-67

World War Ⅰ and,271-72

World War Ⅱ and,282-85,316

Page,Larry,347

Paine,Thomas,19,145,157,159-60,188,229

paintings,11,44,50,181

Pakistan,285,389,392,395

Panama,Isthmus of,37

Pan American,308

panics,see depressions,economic;Great Depression

Paperclip program,313

Paris,139’ 173,188,268,293

Parliament,Belgian,233

Parliament,English,92,101,110,111,112,117,118,137,154,187,192

industrialization and,153

Naoroji in,386-87

see also House of Commons,English;House of Lords,English

Parliament,Indian,389

Parliament,Japanese,338,339

partnerships,187,191,193,215,402

Patel,Raj,425,430,431

patent licenses,341-42

Patent Office,U.S.,179

patents,61

in England,40,47,50,51,147,165

in U.S.,179,256,257,312,348

Patten,Simon Nelson,226

Patterson,John Henry,323

Pearl Harbor,Japan’s attack on,282,313

peasants,84,86,122,209,212,238

Chinese,62,371,375-76,377

French,51-52,84,85,129,156,170

penicillin,316

Pennsylvania,159,162,182,204,428

Pennsylvania,University of,313

Pennsylvania Railroad,203,249

pensions,321,382

People’s Liberation Army,371

peripherals,343,349,354

Perry,Matthew,243

Peru,28,30,34,208,230,429

Pfizer Company,316

pharmaceuticals,pharmaceutical companies,295,298,313,314,316,361,362,369

pharmacists,324

Philadelphia,Pa.,188

philanthropy,203,205,311

Philip Ⅱ,King of Spain,35

Philippines,27,30,31,37,62,245,381,391,424

Spanish-American War and,239,247

in World War Ⅱ,282,285

Phoenicians,38,238

phonographs,256,271

physics,142-45,314,419

physiocracy,114-15

Piech,Ferdinand,299

Pinckney,Eliza Lucas,151

pirates,29,37-39,128

Pizarro,Francisco,30

Planning Commission,Indian,390

plantations,10,48,50,136,420

sugar,10,31,63,64,122-23,127,129,130,230

plastics,309

Platt Brothers,336

Plivier,Theodor,269

plug-in compatibles,345

Pocahontas,48

Point Four program,293,329

Poland,62,84,172,290,384,385

emigrants from,210,211

Nazi invasion of,280

policy makers,277

politics,4,7,12,59,123

civil war and,see civil war

election campaigns and,408,409

in England,15,39,40-41,55,109,156

in France,52

in Japan,244,337-39

in Spain,35,36

TV and,308

after World War Ⅰ,272-73,280

Polo,Marco,28

Pomeranz,Kenneth,14

Ponce de León,Juan,31

Ponzi,Charles,413

Ponzi schemes,413

Pope,Alexander,122

population growth,139,165,197,315,418

agriculture and,5-6,65-70,72,79,84,255

Malthus on,67-68,208-9,255,428

of slaves,135

see also specific countries

Porsche,Ferdinand,298,299

Porsche,Ferry,299

Porsche 356,299

Portsmouth,51

Portugal,50,54,97,124-27,146,165,168,229,237,240,242,420

aristocracy of,13,29-30,47

in Brazil,30,31,49,127,135

colonial wars of,286

Dutch competition with,44-45

evangelical spirit of,28

explorations of,8,9,13,30,36,100

in food exchange,61-62

guest workers from,299-300

military superiority of,34

postwar,295

refugees from,46

slave customs of,135

slave trade of,8,10,30,66,121,124,126,127,129,135

Spain united with,31,35

Spanish rivalry with,30-31

trade of,27-31,34-36,38,39,40,44,47,52,138

World War Ⅱ and,285

railroads(continued)

in U.S.,177,182,183,185,186,188,193,196,198,199,201-4,222,321

Raleigh,Sir Walter,39

rates,100,114,194,418

rational economic actor,75

rats,61,66

RCA(Radio Corporation of America),307,319,341-42

Reagan,Ronald,332,403

reaper,209,238

recession,248,331,332,333,358,377,380,421

in 1970s,402-3

of 2008-2009,400-417

Red Army,Chinese,381

Red Army,Soviet,304

Red Cross,316

Red Guards,371,379

Red Sea,30,38,49,236

refrigeration,197

refugees,postwar,292

Rehnquist,William,324

Reliance Industries,395

religious tolerance,45,46,143,418

Renaissance,11,159

Renault,Louis,298

rent,51,70,71,430

in England,76,77-78,90

rentiers,53

reparations,269,270

reproduction,67,68,378

Republican Party,U.S.,196,333,405,411

Reuther,Walter,321

Rhine Valley,235

Rhode Island,130

Rhodes,Cecil,237

Ricardo,David,112

rice,10,62,132,175,391,392-93,431

Rickover,Hyman,327

Río Tinto,238-39

risk taking,248,405-9

River Rouge plant,258,259

robber barons,217

Roberts,Richard,156

Rockefeller,John D.,201-5,217,248,261,262

Rockefeller Foundation,205,391-92

rockets,311-12

Roger and Me(movie),410

Rolfe,John,48

Roman Empire,28,36,59,124

agriculture in,70,76

Romania,270,290,423

Roosevelt,Franklin Delano,253,278-79,280,290,291,410

Roosevelt,Theodore,217-18,246

Rostow,W. W.,328-29

Rothschild family,173,261,262

Royal African Company,129

Royal Air Force,British,280,281

Royal Navy,British,113

Royal Shell Company,262

Royal Society,British,143

rubber,234,237-38,261,282

Ruhr Valley,169,173,253

rum,130,133

Russia,363,366,369,424

Russia,imperial,146,149,165,168,172,180

emigrants from,210,211,424

Japan’s relations with,245-47

oil in,261

railroads in,183,245

serfs in,84

wars of,123,265-68

Russian Revolution(1905),247

Russian Revolution(1917),267

Saarinen,Eero,308

Sacco,Nicola,220

Samoa,235

samurai,243,244,245

San Diego State University,19

Santo Domingo,29,37,63,128

Sanyo,342

São Paulo,G20 meeting in(2008),414

São Tomé,62-63,126,127

Sarnoff,David,342

Satsuma,242

Savery,Thomas,141,145

savings,66,188,274,275,278,303,353,403

in China,380,382,394,401

savings and loan institutions(S&Ls),333,401,404

Saxony,170

Scandinavia,195,325

scarcity,56,74,90,103,226,361,418

in traditional society,5-6,57,58,71

see also famines

Schechter brothers,278

Schott,Otto,208

Schumacher,E.F.,327

Schuman,Robert,296,297

Schumpeter,Joseph,183,263,311,422,435-36

science,scientists,21,122,207,208,241-42,255,379,418

genenomics and,362

German,contribution to U. S. technology of,311-17

higher education and,309-11

King Leopold and,233,234

paperclip,313

revolution in,141-45

World War Ⅱ and,284-85,312

see also biology;chemistry;physics scientific management,258

Scotland,Scots,52,64,91,158,203

search engines,347,383

Sears,Roebuck,222

Second World,350

Securities and Exchange Commission,403,406,413

segregation,137,216,219,299-300,321,324,388

self-determination,268,286

self-interest,5,16,22,77,94,102,327

in England,106,115

Friedman on,332,333

Great Depression and,277

self-made man,202-4

Sellers,Colonel Beriah(char.),190

semiconductors,343,349,350,354

Sen,Amartya,425,428-30

serfs,60,71,170,171

servants,59,103,116,211,320

indentured,50,128,131

Seventh Fleet,U.S.,353

Seville,37,125,127-28

sewing machine,211

sexual behavior,regulation of,263

sexual freedom,260,361

Shakespeare,William,20,46,107

Shanghai,377

sheep,shepherds,36,81,152

Sherman Antitrust Act(1890),218,263,319

Shinto,243

shipbuilding,42-43,140,180,284

ships,8,34,35,38

Dutch,42-43,52,73,100

slave,129

steamships,147,172,209,211,243

U.S.,180,284

Shockley,William,343,348

Shockley Semiconductor,348

Sichuan Province,383

Sicily,59-60,126,129

Siemens,184,201,375

Siemens,Ernst Werner von,184,201,202,206-7

Sierra Leone,132

Silent Spring(Carson),328

silicon chips,343

Silicon Valley,330,334,348,412

silk,3,30,35,38,244,417

Silliman,Benjamin,204

silver,34,35,45,48,71,131,189,190,230,415

China’s use of,54

of England,102-3

English currency crisis and,107-11

price of,195

of Spain,27,28,30,35,38,42,44,46,100

value of,107-10

Sinclair,Upton,217

Singapore,164,282,285,334-35,350,352-55,375,389

Singh,Manmohan,389-90,393,394

Sino-Japanese War(1894-1895),245

skyscrapers,257,421

slaves,slavery,10,50,63,121-37,236

abolition of,37,124,130,135,136-37,162,175,236,427-28

in England’s continental colonies,130-33

in historical perspective,10. 60. 124

slaves,slavery(continued)

industrialization and,160-61

rationalizations for,133-37

revolts of,129,130,137

in U.S.,136,160,168,175-76

in World War Ⅱ,312

slave trade,43,121-22,169,175-76,231-32,233,420

Portuguese in,8,10,30,66,121,124,126,127,129,135

profits from,130

size of,124,210

Slim Hélu,Carlos,427

Sloan,Alfred P.,Jr.,250,251,259,317,321

Small Is Beautiful(Schumacher),327

Smith,Adam,15-20,23,91,106,118,138,144,154,157-58,174,435

on economic development,212,295

on invisible hand,91,205

Smith,Roger,410

smuggling,128

social capabilities,428-29

social classes,16-17,88

in Germany,171,186,193-94,198,199,213-14

see also aristocracy;middle class;upper class;working class

Social Democrats,German,213,214

social force of labor,320-25,359

socialism,214,288-89,303,321

Socialist Party,Japanese,339

Social Security Administration,316,411

Soddy,Frederick,407

software,343,344

Somalia,425

Sony,330,342

Soto,Hernando de,61

South,American,175,196,323,388

segregation in,137

slavery in,131-33,136,162,168

textile industry and,160-61

South Africa,164,195,231,236-37

Gandhi in,396 South America,7,21,29,37,54,125,420

immigration to,86,209,424

South Asian Free Trade Alliance,399

South Carolina,131,132,151

South Korea,334-35,350,352-56,375,389,393,423

Soviet Union,267,283-87,303

atomic bomb of,304,313

buffer zone of,290

Cold War and,303-5,311,321,358

collapse of,363,375,384

command economy of,267,290,384,431

postwar,287,290,291,293,294

space program in,309

in World War Ⅱ,280,281,283-86,312

soybeans,351,367

space program,309-13

Spain,35-42,49,50,54,97,168,229,240,368,420,424,433

agriculture in,36,61,84,85

aristocracy of,13,30,35-36,46,47,97

in Asia,239,242,245

Belgium’s independence from,42,53

debt of,42,100

economic stagnation in,35-36

emigrants from,210

explorations of,8,13,30,36

famine threat and,59-60

Fascism in,293

fear of heresy in,35

in food exchange,61-62

Great Depression and,276

guest workers from,299-300

imports of,72

industrialization in,35-36,165

islands sold by,235

labor used by,30,31

Netherland’s independence from,35,39,41-42,45,52,73

in New World,9,10,27,28,30,31,37,39,100,121,125-29,135

population growth in,80

Portugal united with,31,35

Portuguese rivalry with,30-31

postwar,293,295

Río Tinto mines in,238-39

slave customs of,135

slavery abolished by,136

slave trade of,8,10,30,66,121,126,130

trade of,30,31,35-39,44,47

wars of,35,36-37,123,128,153

Spanish-American War,239,247

Spanish Main,37,128

specialization,25,175,179,194

agricultural,209

functional,252

Spencer,Herbert,68

spice trade,8,27,28,34-35,38,63,415,417

Dutch in,44,45

spinning jenny,150,152-53

spinning mule,150-51

Sputnik,309,310,311

Squibb,316

Sri Lanka,285,395

Staffordshire,148-50,152

Stages of Economic Growth,The(Rostow),329

stagflation,330,331-32,422

Stalin,Joseph,290,371

Standard &Poor’s,407

standard of living,3,14,23,182,209,431

British,163,170

in Japan,243-44

U.S.,223

Standard Oil,201,204-5,217-18,248-49,251,262

dissolution of,263

Stanley,Henry Morton,232-34,240

State Department,U.S.,312,327,372

States-General,Dutch,44

statistics gathering,187,318

Statute of Monopolies(1624),47

steam power,4,33,123,144-48,150,152,165,167,335,418-19

switch to electricity from,256

textile making and,150-51

steamships,147,172,209,211,243

steel,254,282,296,298,334,354

in China,334,371

in Germany,167,206,253,254

in Japan,335,339

in U.S.,167,201,203,211,250,253,321,359

Stephenson,George,147

Stinnes,270

stock,191-93,248,250,324

price of,271,274

stock exchanges,112,188-89,348,413

crash of,274,275,401

Strength through Joy automobile,298

strikes,212,214,215,218,220,221,225,321,341

submarines,283,327

subsidies,362,367-70

Suez Canal,236,281,326

sugar,3,10,62-64,113,121-30,132,133,136,137,138,140,351,367,420

in Brazil,31,63,121,127,130

in Caribbean,63,64,121,125,127,130,161,230

in food preservation,60,63,130

price of,64

sulfanilamides(sulfas),316

Sullivan,Arthur,246

Sumatra,262

Sumitomo family,335-36

Summers,Lawrence,399

sunflowers,60-61

Sun Yat-sen,247

Supreme Court,U.S.,218,253,256,263,341,401,409

labor issues and,302

National Recovery Act and,278-79

surplus value of labor,16

survival of the fittest,68

Sweden,10,211,234,277

indicative path and,289-90

trade of,8,31,140

Swift,Gustavus Franklin,197

Switzerland,165,299-300,309

syndicalists,212,214

Taft-Hartley Act(1947),322-23

Tahiti,235,245

Taiwan,246,334-35,350,352-55,389,393,423

tanks,284,285,372

Tarbell,Ida,205,216-17

Target,359

tariffs,123,209,228,270,295,367,368,370

English,111,116

German,171,254

U.S.,203,254,276

Tata Motors,393

taxes,70,129,133,192,352,381

in England,40,41,90,111,113,115

in France,51,85,112-15

income,263,300,322

in Japan,244,245

in Netherlands,112

in Spain,35,36

U.S.,174,176,190,263,279,300,325

Taylor,Frederick Winslow,258

Taylorism,258

tea,3,133,140,420

team system,Japanese,338

technology,12,54-55,122,193,243,297-98,307-17,329,330,362,434

Chinese,8,9,379

in Germany and U.S.,182-85,311-17

intellectual impact of,155-56

in Japan,336,337

social impact of,307-9

World War Ⅱ and,284-85,308,313,314

see also innovation;specific kinds of technology

Telefunken,342

telegraphy,183-85,195,227,247-48,256

telephones,185,255,256

cellular,348,395,427

television,307-8,345,360,365,408

color,341-42 Telnet,345-46

tenants,57,58-59,63,65,66,75-78

discrimination and,324

in England,71,76-78,81,82,110

in France,72

terrorism,6,364

Tervuren Museum,235

Tesla,Nikola,256

tetracycline,316

Texas Instruments,354

textiles,textile industry,122,235,335,336

England’s importing of,87,103-6

industrialization of,150-53,165,175,182,198

in Japan,244,336

in United States,160-61

Thatcher,Margaret,332,403

Third World,325,329,350-51,367,423

Thirty Years’War,65,84,267

threshing machines,153

Thyssen,August,201,206

Thyssen &Company,206,270

Tibet,381

Time,344

Times(London),233

tires,260-61

tobacco,3,10,37,49,113,132,138,140,175,420

firms and,250,251

price of,48,131

in Virginia,48,50,131

Tocqueville,Alexis de,180-81

Tokugawa regime,242

tolls,French,51

Toshiba,342,349

Township and Village Enterprise,376

Toynbee,Arnold,11

Toyoda,Kiichiro,337

Toyoda,Sakichi,336-37

Toyoda Automatic Loom Works,336-37

Toyota(car),337,410

Toyota Motor Company,337,339-41,393

trade,3,8,9,12-13,27-55,68,72,319,351

barriers to,368

changes in center of,366

downturn in,95-96,111,123,325

European domination of,34-39

free,see free trade

Great Depression and,274,276

institutions for,305-7

limits of,31-34

society and,46-49

Soviet withdrawal from,267

unintended and unexpected consequences of,49-55

see also specific countries,ethnic groups,and products

trade associations,248

traditional society,26,87-88,119,329,361,431

description of agricultural practices in,60

scarcity in,5-6,57,58

transformer,256

transistors(transfer resistors),330,342,347,348,420

transportation,355

regulation of,333

see also automobiles;railroads;ships

Treasury,U.S.,325,378,382,410

treaties,38,189,196,268,297,370

lend-lease,305

World War Ⅰ and,269,280

Treaty of Rome(1957),296

Tripoli,38

trolley cars,222

Truman,Harry,293,303,321

Truman Doctrine,303

trust,117,118

trusts,205,248,250,263

Tsiolkovsky,Konstantin,311,312

Tunisia,28,210,235

Tupi,127

Turgot,baron de,115

Turkey,38,151,269,374

guest workers from,299-300,325

Truman Doctrine and,303

see also Ottoman Empire

Twain,Mark,190,234-35

underdeveloped countries,173,325,350-51

unemployment,301,325,326,328,331

Friedman on,332

in Great Depression,273,275,278,279,283

unemployment benefits,277,301

unintended consequences,law of,158,405

United Auto Workers(UAW),321,411

United Kingdom,see England;Great Britain

United Nations,293,304-5,338,430,431

United States,174-83,192-206,209-27,234,248-63,281-87,290-354,356-64,375,377-82,387,390-95,398,399

African Americans in,see African Americans

agriculture in,164,177-78,196,209,215,238,258,291,367

army of,239,281,300,301,313,321

atomic bomb and,285,304

automobiles in,222,250,257-61,337,340,341,359,410-11,414

banks in,176,189-90,194,251-52,275,276,390,401-6,408,409,413,414

China compared with,377,378,382

Civil War in,see Civil War,U.S.

Cold War and,286,303-5,311,321,338,372

computers in,313-14,317-20,342-50

consumers in,221-27,258,306-7,366,394,401

corporations in,192-93,211,215-18,223,248-54,257-59,262,263,323,402

debt of,174,178,366

education in,300,309-11,313,322

elections in,193,196,214

empire building of,239,240,245

exploitation by,351

foreign investment in,195-96,412

Four Little Tigers and,353,354

Germany compared with,167-68,172,181,198,213,255,276

Great Depression in,275-79,290-91

immigration to,174,210-12,215,217,218,221,282,299,302,320,323,325

industrialization in,164,165,190,199,212,215,255-59,276,282,288,418

informative path in,290-91

Japan compared with,335,336,339,340-41,356

Japan’s relations with,243,245,337-38

labor struggle in,214-21,225,320-25,359-60,411-12

leviathans of industry in,200-206

in Mexican-American War,189,197,243

middle class in,88,178-79,216,217,221,222,258,323

missionaries from,234

national character of,168

natural resources of,168,182,189,197,202,204-5

navy of,282,313

New Deal in,136,278-79,290,321-22

open door policy of,247

as paradigmatic capitalist country,197

population growth in,197,210-11,378

postwar economy of,300-303

United States(continued)

private initiative in,174-82

recession of 2008-2009 in,400-415

Russia compared with,385

single mothers in,361

slavery in,136,160,168,175-76

social impact of technology in,307-9

in Spanish-American War,239,247

technology in,182-85

textile industry in,160-61

trade gap of,349

trade of,242-43,319

transportation in,172,174,176,177,179,181,182,183,185,186,196,198,199,201,202,222,250,257-61

Vietnam War and,286,311,322,325,328

Walmart in,357-60,411

waning hegemony of,367

westward movement in,177-78,196,211,239

world leadership of,293,434-35

World Trade Organization and,367-70

World War Ⅰ and,266-69,271

World War Ⅱ and,279,281-85,290,304,305,337

United States Agency for International Development,391-92

United States-Japan Mutual Security Treaty,340

Unsafe at Any Speed(Nader),328

upper class,70,116,195,221

English,92-93,116,117-18,154 German,198

see also aristocracy

urban growth,68,72,197,210

Great Depression and,273

in London,86,91-92,104,139-40

Uruguay,214

U.S. Steel,201,203

usury,98-101

Uttar Pradesh,388-89

Uzbekistan,392

vacuum,143,144

vacuum tube,330

Vaishyas,397

value,100,107-10

Vanderbilt,Cornelius,201,202,204,205,206,248

Vanderbilt family,250

Vanzetti,Bartolomeo,220

VCRs,345

Veblen,Thorstein,188

Venezuela,oil of,326

Vengeance Weapon No.2(V-2),312

Venice,Venetians,8,32,34,39,126

Venter,Craig,362

venture capitalists,venture capital,228-30,240,348,412,413,432

Versailles Peace Treaty,269,280,296

veterans,U.S.:

of War of 1812,177

of World War Ⅱ,300-303

Victoria,Queen of England,166,386

Vienna,49,194

Vietnam,354,360

Vietnam War,286,311,322,325,328

Village Phone Project,427

Virginia:

slaves in,131-32,175

tobacco in,48,50,131

Virginia Company,48,50

Vishnu,286

Volkswagen(VW;Beetle),298,299

Voltaire,144,188

wages,16,46,58,66,70,72,83,86,90,289

in China,374,377

English,122,139,140,154,165,215

increase in,97,105,106,139,140,223,225,302,322

iron law of,225

living,428

low,195,209,211,411

minimum,334

U.S.,165,182,195,203,211,215,225,258,275,302,322,323-24,334,358,359

Walmart and,358,359

Wagner Labor Act(1937),279,301,322

Wallace,Henry,391

Wallerstein,Immanuel,351

Wall Street,334,348,406,409

Wall Street(movie),422

Walmart,357-60,411

Walt Disney Company,358,359

Walton,Sam,357-59

war,23,37,362

see also specific countries and wars

War Department,U.S.,312,314

War of 1812,177

War of the Spanish Succession,126

Washington,George,177

water,72,74,392

Waterloo,169

waterpower,26,152,177,256,335

Watson,Thomas,Jr.,319

Watson,Thomas,Sr.,317,318,319,321,357

Watt,James,122,141,146-47,148,155

wealth,23-24,33,46,88,128,197-98,216,303,363,381,407,417,420-21,425,427

of Carnegie,203

in China,72,382

common vs. private,430

distribution of,35,214,291,352

Dutch,39-40,52

in England,89,91,102,118,156

of Gates,344,427

German,171

mercantilist view of,96,97,103,104

of nations,96,103,106

of Rockefeller,261

as safety net,6

from slave labor,175

socializing of,213

from sugar,130

of U.S.,276,291

World War Ⅰ and,265

Wealth of Nations,The(An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations)(Smith),15-20,91,118,138,154,157-58,435

Weber,Max,17-18,164,199

Wedgwood,Josiah,148-50,152,321

Weimar Republic,269

welfare,welfare state,213-14,278,297

Wen Jiabao,381

West,369,414,418

awakening conscience of,240-42

exporting of culture of,360

rise of,11-14,68

West Germany,294,296,354

guest workers in,299-300

West Indies,195,417

imports of,130

slaves in,136

sugar in,63,130,137

trade in,3,29,39,63

Westinghouse,342

Westinghouse,George,256

Westphalia,171,209-10

wheat,57,62,64,277,367,391

in India,391-92

Wheatstone,Charles,184

Whig Party,U.S.,185

Whirlpool,393

Whitney,Eli,132-33,151,175,179

Wickham,Henry Alexander,261

Wilhelm Ⅰ,Kaiser of Germany,213

Wilhelm Ⅱ,Kaiser of Germany,269

William Ⅲ,King of England,111,117

William Ⅲ,King of the Netherlands,262

Wilson,Charlie,414

Wilson,Woodrow,268,269

Windows,350

Windward Islands,128

Wolfe,Tom,334

women,23,135,209,219,269

air travel and,308

in Asian countries,338,355,396,397,426

birth control for,360-61,428-29

as consumers,223

credit and,307

education of,310

emigration of,210,211

employment of,215,223,300,307,320,323-24,333

Muslim,6,426

World War Ⅰ and,266,271

wool,woolen industry,35,36,64,95,106,139

industrialization in,152-53

price of,81

work day,length of,213,214,215,225

workers’compensation laws,225

work ethic,416

Working Assets Long Distance,429-30

working class,209,212,320,323,352,419

consumption and,225-27

English,105,139,140

in India,390

Works Progress Administration,278

World Bank,94,292,325,329,383,384,424,425,429,430

World Economic Conference,277

World Trade(IBM branch),319

World Trade Organization(WTO),292,367-70,398,430

World War Ⅰ,208,265-74,292,296,336,421

casualties in,266,271,281,285

global reactions to,268-73

labor groups and,221

lingering grievances from,280-83

oil in,326

submarines in,283

World War Ⅱ,279-86,288,289,290,304,313,337,367,421

casualties in,267,285,286

German scientists and,312,315-16

labor unions in,302

lend-lease treaties and,305

medicine in,315-16

production achievements in,283-85

relief and recovery after,289-96

submarines in,283

technology in,284-85,308,313,314

World Wide Web,346-47,349

Wozniac,Steven,343

Wright,Orville,259,308

Wright,Wilbur,259,308

xenophobia,242,245,300

Yahoo,347,383

Yemen,49,133,361

yeomen(freeholders),57,71,76,82

Yom Kippur War,326

Yorkshire laborers,152

Young,Arthur,85

Yucatán Peninsula,238

Yugonostalgia,432

Yugoslavia,270,290,299-300,432

Yunus,Muhammad,425-28

Zambesi and Its Tributaries(Livingstone),232

Zapatero,José Luis Rodríguez,359

Zeiss,Carl,201,202,207-8

Zenith,342

Zhang Yimou,365

Zheng He,8,115

Zollverein,171,172

Zyklon B,208